Persuasive Fishing

General purpose To Persuade item purpose To persuade the audience to go sportfishing this summer. Central conceit Fishing is fun and easy Pattern Topical Pattern introduction I have been fishing for 10+ years and really enthral it and would love to sh be this hobby of mine with others. Body There are so many behaviors to fish and I would like to piece with you some information on my favorite ways to fish. Bow fishing is my favorite way to catch fish and it begins around May when the temperature is eer warm and last thru ought the summer.Some gear you allow for have to have is a base a recurve or a compound it doesnt matter but if you are not the best with a bow the best bow for you would be the compound because you have sights on the bow. A retriever reel and an arrow with any kind of tip will work. And the way the fish is swimming threw the water you must aim below where you prove the fish at, its difficult at first but it gets easier. cast off fishing can be done anytime during the summer day or night.I prefer night time because there are less mass fishing and the fish are more active. But the down placement to fishing at night you must then bring a light or build a fire to see the expiry of your gats. The first thing you will need is a fishing pole with a heavy weight on the end of the fishing bourn with a treble hook around half a basis up from the weight you do this because cat fish usually tolerate toward the bottom of the lake or river.What I found works the best and smells the lather is paper bag bait and you push the treble hook down into the punch bait with a stick because if you get it on your hands they will stink for a while. And another good bait to catch the mudcat with is chicken livers and they are a little more difficult to grade on the hook. Conclusion Fishing is a great and relaxing hobby to try out.

Good and Evil in Bless Me Ultima Essay

The conscious of children is based on the influence of their surroundings their notions of pricey and evil are the result of the moral atmosphere they breathe. In the invigorated Bless Me, Ultima the main character Antonio is exposed to good and evil. He is little and never really was exposed to evil since he is always inhabitation and safe away from it. Antonio is affected by the actions of good and evil passim the book. The first quantify Antonio assailed evil was Lupitos finis. I turned and ran.The shadow shadows of the river enveloped me as a race for safety homeThe horror of nighttime had never been so complete as it was for me that night. (pg. 22) Home is seen as the safest range for Antonio. He knows he is going to be comforted by Ultima or his mother and its the first place he thinks of going. Lupito is playing the dowery of evil. That is how Antonio sees is because all the work force in town are after him I prayed that he would listen to Narcisco and that the an gry and frustrated men on the pair would not commit moral sin (pg.21) Although Lupito is part of evil in the novel, Antonio doesnt want any amour to happen to him. Antonio is rattling religious and is why he doesnt want anything to be acquiree. He doesnt want the men to sin and believes that God will forgive what Lupito did after all. The Second essential encounter is when Florence dies. It was a warm day. I felt the sweat crisp on my face and arms. The sun Glistened on the wide waters of the lake. (pg. 239). Antonio knows something is defective when he sees the other boys screaming and shouting.At this point Antonio has confronted evil more times only this is an important event. After other occasions he has matured quite a bit and is growing into understanding bearing a little more. It is god who has sinned against me his voice thundered, and we fell back in horror at the blasphemy he uttered. (pg. 213)Florence for a while is seen as evil. He was one of the people who i n a way crooked the way Antonio thought and his beliefs. Florence isnt aware he did such thing simply Antonio stands strong with his religion. When Florence dies, he isnt evil anymore.He is average a child that needed help in guiding him. The death affects Antonio for weeks and Ultima always seeks a way I how to comfort him. The last encounter in the whole novel is Ultima dying. Ultima- I wanted to cry out, dont die, Ultima. I wanted to rip death away from her and the owl. (pg. 260) Since birth, Antonio is very attached to Ultima and the first day he met her as a teen man she knows there would be something special between them. Shanking her hand he as well right away knows that there is something unexplainable.Ultima is the one who shows and guides him into whatsoever he needs to know since no one ever takes the time to do so. .. and after mass we would take her body to the cemetery in Las Pasturas for burial. But all that would only be the ceremony that was prescribed by custo m. Ultima was really buried here. Tonight. (pg. 262) Ultima is the good who people make her seem evil. Others emphasise making Antonio believe that she isnt a good person but him and his family knows for a fact that it isnt true. Tenorio is the Evil passim the book.His stubbornness doesnt let anyone get through to him and gets others to think that Ultima isnt good. In the mop up she is exposed to everyone but there is nothing that could be done since she has passed away. Antonio is devastated but has grown. There is nothing that could be done. Good and evil stream throughout the novel. Antonio is affected by events that dont necessarily include him. Lupitos death, Florences death and Ultimas death all cooperated in ever-changing Antonio. He is a strong young man that before is sensual and wasnt exposed to events in life.

Educational assessment and evaluation, Essay

The primary aspire of education is to enable learningThe purpose of the assessment should be describe and classified, whether formative or summative?whether student focused or course of study focused?For specific assessment, the following should be specifiedContent stageScoring, reporting and utilization of resultsASSESSMENT concerned with making judgments about the value, outlay or bore of learning process Since military rank involves judgments, it is consequential for educational managers to discuss and agree about the purpose of any evaluation application and the criteria to be used in making judgmentsEVALUATION OF LEARNING OUTCOMES IN EDUCATIONPURPOSE1. Evaluation for accountabilitySeveral levels can be identifiednational, local education( division or district),institutional,departmental coach recognitions and accreditationAnnual proportional data2. Evaluation for improvement purposesSchool strive for better outcomes for their learnersSchool need ways of evaluating how good the learning outcomes are How the outcomes may be sustained or improvedOutcomes in Education1. A hearty educated individual-complete with skills, knowledge and abilitiesa. Formative evaluationb. Summative evaluationc. 2. actsd. -refers to the achievement of the students in terms of examinations, tests, term papers and other outmatch national or international examinations such as e. National Achievement Test (NAT)f. Career assessmentg. Board examinationsh. TIMSS3. The added value of the school The whole-institutions quality and effectiveness measured by examination results brings added value to the school.4. learn skillsLearning is a creative process in which the learner designs his own understandings and skills, boozing new knowledge and experience while relating them to previous experiences.5. Social and bread and butter skillsRange of Intelligences and talents may broaden the range of educational aspirations such as creativity, cooperation, motivation and other interpers onal and social skills. Learning is done in social interactions.6. SatisfactionConsultation from the stakeholders of the schoolImprovement of satisfaction is an important achievement of schools 7. Destination of GraduatesFollow-up of graduatesEmployability is in terms ofa. Waiting ageb. Job fitness

Dry Leaves as Sand Substitute for Blocks

Caraga State University Cabadbaran Campus Cabadbaran City Dry Leaves as Sand sculptural relief for Blocks Submitted by Dime Rose Diola Jerzeld Villalon Lyka Lou Arogancia Natasha Anne Payot Adviser Prof. Nathalie Daminar Chapter 1 The Problem stress of the Study A leaf is a lateral photosynthetic cognitive process of the stem of a plant, commonly broad, flat, thin and of a green color. Leaves (plural) be the food factories of plants, the sites where most of the plants muscularity is produced 1. There be leaves that provide a fosterive service when a plant is infra attack.Leaves may alike serve as a storage sites or help obtain food for a plant 2. For plants, as defense, leaves protect them from enemies such as animals, diseases, and environmental extremes with specific defense weapon 3. The most important contrisolelyions leaves make to our planets ecosystem atomic number 18 through their processing of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen, though a waste merchandise of phot osynthesis is essential to plant, animal, and human survival. As leaves break down carbon dioxide and issue oxygen, they also help determine global clime patterns 4.On the other side, a block is a molded rectangular brick of clay or mother wit enclosed in a molder and hardened for long hours and utilize as a building and paving material. Bricks were often employ for reasons of speed up and economy 5. The researchers aimed to make change leaves into use not only by preserving it and use as decorations but by making it as unitary of the of import part for concrete blocks. Also, to aliveness the RA 9003 or cognize as Ecological Solid Waste Management Act for implement. Objectives of the StudyThis deal primarily aims to make run dry leaves as one of the principal(prenominal) component in making concrete blocks to lessen dry leaves in the milieu since some of us burned dry leaves which disrupt our ecosystem by creating harmful gases through smoke. Since the depletion of the ozone layer is coming to its worst, the researchers find some way to operate on this problem and to lose temporary solution that will lead to a permanent solution on how to lessen dry leaves without burning it or by causing some harm both to the planet and to the mountain.And to support the waste management campaign in the country. Significance of the Study This plain which aimed to find out if the dry leaves can be one of the main components in making blocks is significant to different sectors for various reasons * gos as an eye-opener for those who have problems regarding on how to reduce dry leaves in their community/area. * Provides durable and economical product. * Helps in controlling ecological waste. * Provide information to citizens with respect of nonstop burning of dry leaves that destroys the planet or causing global warming. * Serve s motivating factor for plaza owners, construction workers and construction materials manufacturers to fort their capabilities for developing blocks and other processes to maximize the use of dry leaves in the society. Furthermore, the resultant of the study will provide empirical information to policy makers in Ecological Solid Waste Management (RA 9003). Dry leaves are unremarkably burned down elsewhere and eventually produce hazardous gases in the air. Conducting this experiment does not only support RA 9003 but it also opens an avenue to develop technology in bricks in the community.Likewise, this provides all people an opportunity to enjoy living in a clear, clean and hazard-free environment. range of mountains and Limitation Creating dry leaves as one of the component for concrete blocks is the main concern of this research. This study is limited only in using dry leaves, cement, water and a little use of small nether regions and if the study is a success, it can be use in constructing buildings. Review of the Related writings The oldest discovered blocks, originally make from shaped mud and dat ing to beforehand 7500 B.C and were found atTell Aswad, Egypt. The first sun-dry blocks were made in Mesopotamia (what is straightaway Iraq), in the antediluvian city ofUrin about 4000BC, although the arch used for drying the blocks was not actually found. Other examples of civilizations that used mud brick include theancient Egyptiansand the Indus6. In Europe, blocks were often used for reasons of speed and economy, even in areas where stone was available. The buildings of the Industrial Revolution in Britain were largely constructed of block and timber ascribable to the demand created 7.Inpre-modern China, brick-making or block-making was the job of a lowly and unskilled artisan, but a kiln master was respected as a step higher up the former 8. Bricks of concrete with sand aggregate can be made using a simple machine, and a basic assembly plication method. A conveyor belt adds the mixture to a machine, which pours a metrical amount of concrete into a form. The form is vibra ted to remove bubbles. The form is then(prenominal) raised to reveal the wet bricks, spaced out on a plywood sheet. A small elevator then stacks these palettes, later on which a forklift operator moves them to the brickyard for drying.Definition of Terms carbon dioxide- a colorless, inodorous incombustible gas somewhat heavier than air. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are absorbed by plants, which synthesize certain carbohydrates and release oxygen into the air. oxygen- odorless, colorless, tasteless, gasified chemical element that occurs free in the atmosphere. photosynthesis- the production of organic substances, in the main sugars, from carbon dioxide and water occurring in green plant cells supplied with enough sparkle to allow chlorophyll to aid in the transformation of the radiant energy into a chemical form. zone layer- an atmospheric layer within the atmosphere absorbing ultraviolet radiation and preventing some heat loss from the earth. climate change- is a significant and lasting change in the statistical scattering of weatherpatterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. kiln- a furnace or oven for drying, burning or bake something as bricks, grain or pottery. Chapter 2 question Methodology investigate Design The researchers will use experimental method wherein the study focuses on the acceptability of the said topic.Several data were gathered before coming up with a procedure. Research Instruments Materials used in the study * Brick molder * cement * Dry Leaves * Water * Shovel Procedure 1. Pulverize the gathered dry leaves. 2. Mix the pulverized dry leaves, 3 cups cement and 2 cups water. 3. utilize a shovel mix thoroughly then put in a block molder. 4. Shape mixed substance. 5. Wait for the block to dry. Research Locale The study was conducted at one of the researchers home in Brgy. 12, Cabadbaran City. The place is complete with materials that are use in the study.

Persuasive Letter

09/16/2012 Ms. June Watkins Principal L oneness High School 12345 Out in that respect Road Somewhere, KY 54321 Dear Ms. Watkins It has come to my attention that the students of this tame, in particular the launching freshman, will be required to use IPads during this school grade. The idea of victimisation such technology is an advantage in some cases, like the repeated ability to stay informed through the internet and the light tilt of the device. However, in that location atomic number 18 other situations where IPads, being the only source for information, resources, and school supplies, are inappropriate for our students.Thus, I ask for your consideration in not implementing such devices in this school. First, we must consider the finances of most of the students and parents in this district. The option for payment of the device is given at the end of their mellow school careers with the school making the initial payment however, the device could be outdated or broken by that period. What happens if one of the devices breaks during the school year or at any time during high school? Do the parents pay for the broken IPad as well a new one? Second, the students will be using the IPads at all(prenominal) points in time during school and at home.How will the issues of social networking, instant chat, and random look for of the internet during class time be addressed? Students would need essential defineion because of the inappropriate use of the internet will there be a limitation set on the devices, and is it even possible to restrict the device? Lastly, I want to address the issue of word excogitate and research by use of an IPad. Although there are many sources in which a student can gain more literacy, there are many more that encourage the use of poor grammar and spelling.Many times students verify on the computer to spit out the correct spelling, meaning, and content without the catch that there are reliable and unreliable sources. How ca n we implement a device that goes against what we are trying to teach our students? With all of the positive uses of the IPad, there are an equal amount of negative uses for the same device. I rely you consider the points I have given before implementing such a major change in the school that will affect all students, teachers, and parents in this district. Thank you for your time. Sincerely,

Hebrew Ehe Eternal Language

HEBREW THE arrant(a) row WILLIAM CHOMSKY HEBREW THE ETERNAL LANGUAGE Varda Books 5761 / 2001 skokie, illinois, usa Copy justifiedly 2001 by Varda Books Original copyright 1957 by THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA All Rights Reserved atomic number 42 Printing, 1958 New ISBN 1-59045-441-3 depository library PDFNo part of this publication may be re upraised or transmitted in some(prenominal)(prenominal) form or by both(prenominal)(prenominal) means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage retrieval sy groundwork, except for brief passages in connection with a critical review, with place license in writing from the publisher Varda Books, 9001 Keating Avenue, Skokie, Illinois, USA Prep ard as an e father by Varda Graphics, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 57? 8140 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA To My Children dwelling TOC office PREFACE There has long been want for a book on the broth of the Hebr aic expression, its struggle for survival of the fittest in the face of almost insurmountable obstacles, and its survival as a talkn earthy in our own day. I confess to having for legion(predicate) an(prenominal) years cherished the hope that it would some day be disposed me to write this story. At the actu exactlyy(prenominal) age, I shrank from under winning a line of work so vast and grand, so primary to the Je manage cultural heritage, and involving so umteen aspects of Jewish life and report.When, on that pointfore, the Zionist Organization of America approached me some(prenominal)(prenominal) years ago with the request that I prepargon a nerve pathway on the pendant, Hebraical, The Story of a Living lecture, I anyowed myself to be persuaded for the truly reason that the discussion would be brief and disco biscuittative. Yet some of my friends at once began urging me to expand that pamphlet into a full-sized book, and this is the firmness. The accoun t is remote from exhaustive. It is designed primarily for the intelligent reader earlier than for the scholar. In the service of popularization much had to be diluted, omitted or condensed.In numerous a(prenominal) atomic number 18as the presentation is actu all in ally sketchy, though, I hope, authentic and accu tell. A to a greater uttermost comprehensive account impart run through to await to a greater extent auspicious circumstances. In the writing of this book I had to resort to various sources of information and to the help of individual(a)s who ar in effect(p) in certain(a) specific beas, and I herewith wish to ease up grateful ac hit the hayledgment. I am, of course, primarily indebted to Dr. Solomon Grayzel for his stimulation and encouragement, criticism and advice, in the preparation of this book.My thanks argon due(p) to the following individuals for helpful propose and information Judah Lapson, Chairman of Hebraical gardening Service Committee fo r Ameri bay window High Schools and Colleges A. Leo Oppenheim, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago Cecil Roth, Oxford vii re alignnce TOC business leader viii Preface University, Eng acres E. A. Speiser, Chairman, Department of Oriental Studies, University of Pennsylvania. I in addition wish to chip in appreciative ack instantaneouslyledgment of the following publications from which illustrative materials were taken The Hebraic Scripts, S. A.Birnbaum Millon ha-Lashon ha-Ibrit, Eliezer Ben Yehudah The Field of Yiddish, edited by Uriel Weinreich, Linguistic striation of New York Semitic constitution, G. R. Driver, Oxford University Press A Study of Writing, I. J. Gelb, University of Chicago Press. Recognition is also due to Historische Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache, Hans Bauer and Pontus Leander, Verlag von soap Niemeyer, which provided a model for the illustration of Branches of the Semitic Languages, on summon 22. It is my hope that this volume will stimulate n ewfangled interest in the Hebraical talking to among those who know it as tumesce as those who do non.May the story of the ancient tongue upgrade as fascinating to my readers as it has always been to me. W. C . March 1, 1957 home TOC indicant CONTENTS establishmentThe comp peerlessnt part of Hebraic in Jewish bearing, 1 bump IHow the Language Began to Be m offh CHAPTER 1 Hebraic and the Languages of Mankind, 17 CHAPTER 2How the Hebraic Language Began, 32 CHAPTER 3The Early Non-Biblical Sources of Hebrew, 50 PART IIHow the Written Language Took Form CHAPTER 4How the Hebrew genuine rudiment Originated, 73 CHAPTER 5How Did the Vowel-System Evolve? 3 CHAPTER 6How the Study of Hebrew Grammar Began and Developed, 117 CHAPTER 7How Was the textbook of the Hebrew book of account Preserved? 139 PART ternaryHow the Language Was Preserved CHAPTER 8How Did the Hebrew Language Grow? 157 CHAPTER 9How the Hebrew Language Has Kept Abr tocopherol of Changing Needs, 172 CHAPTER 10How Hebrew Evolved as a Modern diction, 184 CHAPTER 11Did Hebrew fifty-fiftytider lapse? 206 PART IVHow the Language Meets Modern Needs CHAPTER 12The postulate for Revival, 231 CHAPTER 13Hebrew in America, 245 EPILOGUEHebrew for American Jews, 270 Notes and Bibliography, 281 might, 313 ix gt inhabitancy TOC indication photographic plate TOC great power LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page 1. Hittite hieroglyph Writing. dexterity of I. J. Gelb, A Study of Writing (University of Chicago Press), 1952, rapscallion 83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Branches of the Semitic Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geographical Distri nonwithstandingion of the Semitic Languages . . 21 22 23 2. 3. 4. Transcription of the Mesha St genius. Courtesy of I. J. Gelb, A Study of Writing (University of Chicago Press), 1952, page 134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Hieroglyphic Inscriptions found in Sinai. Courtesy of G. R. Driver, Semitic Writing (British Academy, London), 1954, page 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hittite Hieroglyphic Writing. Courtesy of I. J. Gelb, A Study of Writing (University of Chicago Press), 1952, page 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 75 6. 77 81 7. The Contents of a Mezuzah. An example of pay- written Hebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Inscriptions from the Sinaitic Peninsula.Courtesy of G. R. Driver, Semitic Writing (British Academy, London), 1954, page 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From Hebrew to the Latin Alphabets . . . . . . . . . . 83 87 9. 10. Three Vowel Systems 1. Babylonian 2. Palestinian 3. Tiberian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 11. The Masoretic Text as prep atomic number 18d by the Ben Asher School. Courtesy of S. A. Birnbaum, The Hebrew Scripts, Fasc. 2, page 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 12. A Page from the Rabbinic Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 xi spot TOC top executive xii List of Illustrations Between pp. 242 and 243 13. Hebrew Calendar from Gezer. Courtesy of S. A. Birnbaum, The Hebrew Scripts, no. 2 14. Sinaitic Writing. Courtesy of G. R. Driver, Semitic Writing (British Academy, London), 1954, pl. 38 15. The Siloam Inscription. Courtesy of S. A. Birnbaum, The Hebrew Scripts, no. 14 16. The Mesha Stone. Courtesy of The Louvre, Paris 17. Lachish Ostraca. Courtesy of S. A. Birnbaum, The Hebrew Scripts, nos. 23, 24 18. Coins of the Second Commonwealth.Courtesy of S. A. Birnbaum, The Hebrew Scripts, nos. 56, 58, 61 19. Stamps of Modern Israel 20. The Nash Papyrus. Courtesy of Cambridge University Library 21. An Aramaic and Yiddish Version of Had Gadya. Courtesy of The Field of Yiddish Studies in Yiddish Language, Folklore and Literature promulgated on the Occasion of the Bicentennial of Columbia University, ed. by Uriel Weinreich, Linguistic Circle of New York, 1954 22. Eliezer Ben Yehudah. Courtesy of Millon ha-Lashon ha-lbrit Home TOC mogul HEBREW THE ETERNAL LANGUAGE Home TOC Index Home TOC Index INTRODUCTION THE ROLE OF HEBREW IN JEWISH LIFE Hebrew as a Modern Vernacular B atomic number 18ly a decade or 2 ago thither were mountain who maintained that Hebrew was non a existent talking to. promptly, the consecrate lyric poem of the past is the periodic vernacular of hundreds of thoulittoral zone of Jews in Israel. There the verbalize wrangle lives in the mouths of school children, bootblacks, busmen, cab drivers, cabaret singers, lawyers, doctors and officials, of the apparitional, ir ghostlike and anti-religiousindeed, of eachone.The thick swimming strokes and thin verticals of the Hebrew alphabet are blazoned all everyplace the rural on posters, advertising signs, stamps and coins on highways, shops, stores and hotels. Hebrew slang, colloquialisms and plane curses are freely coined part the He brew Language Academy (formerly, Vaad haLashon), composed of outstanding scholars and writers and sponsored by the Israel government, is vigilantly on guard against the intrusion of any solecisms or barbarisms that faculty impair the purity of the terminology.From beat to time, moreover, this Academy publishes lists of technical shapes masking piece e genuinely branch and aspect of science, industry, technology and the exchangeable some ten chiliad new devises piddle gained currentness since the establishment of the enounce of Israel. At least four theatrical companies offer regular implementationsall, of course, in Hebrew. Thou1 Home TOC Index 2 Hebrew The interminable Language sands of books, magazines, newspapers and brochures on every conceivable topic are in daily circulation.Close to two hundred periodicals are published at that place in Hebrew, including 15 dailies and the rest weeklies, monthlies, quarterlies and annuals. Hebrew books are published in Israel at the rate of more than three a day. The air waves of Israel vibrate to the rhythm of the virtuous tongue. Outside of Israel, the most significant center of Hebrew culture is America. The language is read, understood and mouth by thousands of American Jews. There are Hebrew periodicals of popular as well as scholarly eccentric person Hebrew books, fictional and scientific Hebrew language instruction on unproblematic and college level.Schools, camps and clubs encourage the intercommunicateing of Hebrew. Can in that location be any head state as to the aliveness of the Hebrew language? None of the modern attempts to liven up out of date languages, much(prenominal) as Gaelic, Welsh and Indi, can boast of anything approximating the procession make by Hebrew. Yet the Irish, Welsh and Indians throw off been rooted on their own soil and are free from political, physical and economic difficulties with which the issue struggling Jewish community in Israel has had to cope.Sour ces of Vitality of the Hebrew Language How was the Hebrew language able to exist and function as an potent instrument of nonional self-expression and intercommunication for about two thousand years, without such an congenital ingredient for survival as a state or territorial dominion? How could Hebrew retain its vitality and e moveicity over such a long period of time in the face of such unseemly conditions? The answer to these questions may be discovered by considering the unequalled character of Judaism and its relation to the Hebrew language.Hebrew has not been a de guinea pigized universal tongue, the medium of a specific religion, in the nose out that Latin has been the official language of the papistic Catholic Church. Nor has it been merely a folk tongue like some separate refreshing breathing languages. As a matter of fact, it has persisted as a living lan- Home TOC Index The Role of Hebrew in Jewish life-time 3 guage for some centuries later on it had cea sed to be a mouth vernacular in the accepted sense of the term, as will be demo in a later chapter in this volume.Hebrew has been the sacred language of the Jewish raftthe language of its religion, culture and civilization. It has been, in sum, the language of Judaism and advantageously set with the national and religious meets of the Jewish bulk passim the contemporariess. The Jewish people can no more be dissociated from Hebrew than they can be dissociated from their own spiritual identityJudaism. Relationship amidst Language and Culture An analysis of the nature of language and of Judaism may help to clarify this point.Language is not merely a means of expression and communication it is an instrument of experiencing, intellection and feeling, as well as a means of self-expression and personal developing. In investigating the origin of language and after tracing back its history as far as we can, we see that the earliest language was anything exactly understanding, that it was indeed a sort of half-way ho purpose amid singing and wrangle with long almost conglomerations of sounds, which served instead as an outlet for intense feelings than for an perspicuous expression of them . . 1 Indeed, unconstipated in modern days language is sedulous by children (and often by grown people), not so much to formulate and express thoughts as to accept vent to feelings . . . 2 Our ideas and experiences are not independent of language they are all underlying parts of the same pattern, the warp and woof of the same texture. We do not foremost base redeem thoughts, ideas, feelings and then put them into a verbal framework. We calculate in run-in, by means of invents. Language and experience are inextricably interwoven, and the awareness of one awakens the some some other.Words and idioms are as indispensable to our thoughts and experiences as are colors and tints to a painting. Our personality matures and develops through language and by our ch aracter of it. Defective linguistic growth is know to go hand in Home TOC Index 4 Hebrew The Eternal Language hand with stunted intellectual and emotional development. Deaf and dumb people are, as a rule, intellectually retarded and, in some degree, thus far callous, unless accustomed means of adequate communication.What is true of language in relation to individual growth is equally true in the grapheme of the cultural growth and development of a people. Indeed, students of language form come to recognize that the experiences of a group, its mental and emotional habits, its modes of thoughts and attitudes are registered and reflected in the playscripts and idioms of the groups language. Thus, for example, the condition shalom, usually rendered by peace, has in effect little in rough-cut with its slope equal. Shalom does not fox the passive, even negative, connotation of the news show peace. It does not mean merely the absence of strife. It is pregnant with positive, a ctive and untiring substance and association. It connotes totality, health, wholesomeness, harmony, success, the completeness and richness of living in an integrated social milieu. When people meet or part they wish each other shalom, or they inquire about each others shalom. sympatheticly, the Hebrew haggle ruah (spirit) and nefesh (soul) do not have the implications of a disembodiment, such as are indicated by their incline equivalents. There is no dichotomy in the Hebrew mind between body and spirit or soul.One is not the antithesis of the other. These Hebrew speech have high-octane, life-giving and motor-urgent connotations. every(prenominal) living being has a ruah, even the beast possesses a ruah (Ecclesiastes 3. 21). The same is true of the synonym nefesh, which is broadly speaking rendered by soul. exclusively nefesh, too, is the property of all living beings (Job 12. 10), including the beast (Proverbs 12. 10). dismantle the netherworld has a nefesh (Isaiah 5. 14 ). Furthermore, every living creature, man as well as animal, is designated as nefesh (Genesis 1. 0, 21, 24, 12. 5, 14. 21, etc. ). Both nefesh and ruah often signify military force and vigor, both in a material and a spiritual sense. avid dogs are said to possess a strong nefesh (Isaiah 56. 11) and the horses of Egypt, the prophet warns, are weak they are flesh and no ruah ( ib. , 31. 3). Home TOC Index The Role of Hebrew in Jewish Life 5 There is alike a far cry between the Hebrew enounce tzedakah (from the stem tzadak, to be just or righteous), with its implications of social justice, and the side leger charity. In the case of charity the recipient sees himself beh sometime(a)en to the donor, whose action is voluntary. Tzedakah, on the other hand, has to be performed as a matter of obligation and the recipient is in no way indebted to the donor. The needy have a right to tzedakah, term those possessing means have a duty to give it. Indeed, even a poor person who receives tzedakah must in turn give tzedakah (Gittin 7b). There is, likewise, a wide semantic gulf between the Hebrew rahamim or rahmanut and the English equivalent pity or mercy. The Hebrew word connotes love, family feeling (see Genesis 43. 30, etc. ), even motherliness, since it is related to rehem (mothers womb) of the same stem. None of these connotations is implied in the English equivalents. as well, the richly meaningful and diachronicly saintly implications of the Hebrew torah are totally absent in the English equivalent law. The Hebrew term torah embraces the totality of Jewish creative labor throughout the ages. Just as inadequate is the English translation commandment for the Hebrew mitzvah.In one of his hasidic3 stories, the Hebrew writer Yehudah Steinberg depicts a hasid expressing astonishment at the ignorance and indulgence of the reshaim (the wicked or the disbelievers ). The main motive for committing wicked deeds, reasons the hasid, is the search and hunting of plea sure and en delightment. But is any greater pleasure or joy conceivable than that of playing a mitzvah? Hence, he continues, if the reshaim were sufficiently wise to realize this, they would abandon their wickedness and would all become tzaddikim (righteous or rigorously observant Jews), just for their pleasures sake.This type of reasoning was not unique among handed-down Jews. Simhah shel mitzvah, the joy of performing a mitzvah, constituted an integral element in the pattern of the Jewish way of life. To be sure, the word mitzvah skipperly meant no more than a command in the accepted sense. But the specific reli- Home TOC Index 6 Hebrew The Eternal Language gious experiences of the Jewish people, their feeling of exultation in the performance of religious responsibilities, invested this word with a cluster of associations and connotations not originally inherent in it.Is it conceivable that one could get a thrill out of performing a mitzvah if it were merely a commandment? Every language, including English, has a stock of lecture which are charged with the emotional and intellectual experiences of the people leaseing it. To illustrate, within our own experiences, the English word fireside came to pay a new connotation as a event of listen to the fireside chats inaugurated by the late president, Franklin D. Roosevelt.Similarly, the word filibuster, originally signifying a highwayman or pirate, is now sedulous in the United States in the sense of hindering legislation by means of long speeches or other parliamentary tricks. One may also add, as examples, such expressions as go to bat, strike out and the like. The richer and the more intense the historical experiences of a people, the greater is the number of such words in its language and the more emotionally charged they are. When translated into another(prenominal) language, they become devitalized and almost meaningless.Such words are not mere linguistic units they are cultural deposits. But they cannot be transmitted in isolation. They take on their meaning and gain in richness of association and connotation besides through the context of experience. In the past some Hebrew words and expressions survived in the vernacular of the people long after the Hebrew language had ceased to be popularly spoken. They were kept alive by the intimate contact which the trainity of the people act to maintain with the Hebrew literary sources and by the persistence of Jewish forms of living and habits of thinking.Furthermore, one can readily quote a host of expressions and idioms which, though composed of words in the vernacular, encase, in effect, Hebraic thought-patterns. It would seem that as long as the Jews were rooted in their traditional patterns of life, they were sensitive to the lack of the vernacular in expressing and conveying the emotionally charged meaning Home TOC Index The Role of Hebrew in Jewish Life 7 of certain Hebrew words. They whence persisted either in r etaining the original words and expressions, or in investing the Hebraic mental pattern or idiom with the garb of the vernacular.In this manner a great many words and expressions, as well as idioms, found their way into the various vernaculars engaged by the Jews throughout the history of their dispersion. Such dialects arose as Judaeo-classic, Judaeo-Arabic, JudaeoPersian and the like. The best known of these dialects, surviving to this day and incorporating a considerable proportion of these Hebraic elements, are Ladino, a Judaeo-Spanish dialect employed by the Jews in the Balkan States and Morocco, and, especially, Yiddish.At present, however, especially in this country, Jewish patterns of life no longer provide a worthy functional context for these words and expressions. The distinctive features of the Jewish climate singularity of traditional Jewish ghettos, especially those of Eastern Europe, have almost whole disappeared. The specific vocabularies and idioms of Jewish lif e no longer function they have been translated into English equivalents. Yamim noraim are High Holy Days, a siddur is a prayerbook, a mahzor is a High Holy day or Festival prayerbook.Yom tov has been replaced by holiday. Such traditional Hebrew terms as hazzan (cantor), shammash (sexton),aron kodesh (holy ark), menorah (candelabrum), sefer torah (scroll of the Torah), gabbai (an elder in the synagogue), etc. , once car parkly employed, have fallen into desuetude. A in force(p) Jew is no longer mekayyem a mitzvah, or is a shomer shabbat. Instead, he is performing a command or trade good deed and is a Sabbath observer. He does not drink le-hayyim (to life or health) he drinks to happy days, and so on.The contact with the literary Hebraic sources remains, therefore, the only avenue to these cultural deposits. The substance of Judaism The meaning of the terms Jews and Judaism has, likewise, been a source of confused thinking. Are the Jews a race, Home TOC Index 8 Hebrew The Etern al Language a nation, a religious group, or what? Is Judaism only a body of beliefs and practices, or of nationalistic symbols and slogans, or of cultural ideas and literary compilations, such as could be conveyed by one linguistic vehicle or another? such(prenominal) futile argumentation relative to these matters may be found in our recent literature. The disputants seem to ignore the fact that a feeling of kinship exists among Jews of all races and colors, of all parts of the world, regardless of whether they are orthodox, reform or even atheistic. To be sure, some or all of the elements mentioned above may be found in the Jewish group or in Judaism, as the case may be, not in an additive sense, but rather in an integrative or chemical sense.Hence, the whole is not like any of the parts, just as common salt is not in the least like the sodium and chlorine of which it is compounded or just as water is nothing like its elements, oxygen and hydrogen, of which it is a compound. The c ompound ABC is larger than the sum of the parts and different in character from each of them as a result of their integration and reciprocal influence. In such a compound the individual component elements are changed and modified. Removing one of these elements or substituting one for another will drop or change the whole compound.All this is equally true of the cultural, national and religious elements that make up Judaism. Jewish religion is, in effect, a distinctive, dynamic life-pattern, constantly and progressively adapting itself to changing needs and circumstances it is harmonizely intimately bound up with the Jewish people, their history, culture and civilization. It is in this vein that Judah Halevi interprets the very first Commandment, where the ennoble is referred to as thy God, who brought thee out of the land of Egypt, and not as the God who created the universe and humanity.This purports to emphasize, Halevi asserts, the close identification of the Torah with the J ewish people and their historical experiences. 4 It is significant that neither biblical nor mishnaic Hebrew possesses a term for either religion or Judaism. To this day Home TOC Index The Role of Hebrew in Jewish Life 9 no specific term for religion is to be found in Hebrew, while the concept Judaism (classic Judaismos) stems from noncitizen soil. It was invented by the Jews of the Hellenistic Diaspora to indicate the contrast between their faith, or way of life, and Hellenism (Hellenismos). The Hebrew term for this concept (yahadut) was probably coined by Rashi (10401105). The traditional term for this concept, employed in the Bible and in the Talmud, is Torah. Now this term, as has been said, embraces the totality of Jewish beliefs and practices, ideals and ideas, in fact, all the products of the Jewish creative elan through the centuries. The Commandments, according to one source, imply all that is include in the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud, whether legal or homiletic in character.In fact, any indication which at any time a faithful student is belike to offer before his initiateer was already presented to Moses on Mount Sinai. 6 When the rabbis were in doubt about the legality of certain rituals and practices, they would say Go and see how the people conduct themselves. 7 The conduct of the people in a normal traditional environment served as a pass for establishing and codifying certain laws and rituals indeed a custom may nullify a law. 8 No religion in the accepted sense of this term would permit such latitude.Significantly, the Hebrew term for law, whether ritual, ethical, criminal, or civil, is halakhah, a word which signifies conduct. Peculiar historical circumstances, the analysis of which is outside our province, have operated in the case of the Jewish people in such a manner as to merge race, nationality, culture and religion into a composite unit, which is articulated in a distinctive language, with the result of modifying the ind ividual characteristics of each of the components. Hence, the laws applying to each of them in isolation will not apply to any or all of them in integration.Thus, although Christianity may continue to function without a distinctive language, the Jewish religion cannot do so, because it is too intimately fused with elements of race, nationality and culture, all of which are in turn rooted in the Hebrew language. It is inconceivable that any of the Home TOC Index 10 Hebrew The Eternal Language traditional Jewish prayers, in translation, could evoke the same historical associations, cultural allusions and national memories, as they do in the original Hebrew. Because Jews of old wanted those associations they go on to pray in Hebrew and study their literary sources in Hebrew.They hold the language and the language preserved them. Hebrew as the Language of Judaism In sum, Judaism may be defined as the ongoing historical experience of the Jewish people, in which are compounded religi ous, national and cultural elements. This unique historical experience has been articulated in distinctive words and idioms of the Hebrew language, with which it has become inextricably blended. Disassociate this historical experience from the Hebrew language, and the result is a pale, anemic reflection, a dilution and sometimes even an adulteration of the original experience.Indeed, some Jewish scholars maintained that the deviations of Christianity from Judaism may be directly traceable to the translations of the Bible into Greek. The original Hebrew words took on, in the Greek translation, connotations which were not intended by the Hebrew authors, with the result that they suggested views and ideas entirely alien to the Jewish spirit. One of the many glaring examples is the origin of the virgin-birth dogma in Christianity, a concept which was associated with the mistranslation of the word almah (Isaiah 7. 14).In Hebrew the word merely means preadolescent woman in the Greek tra nslation it was rendered by parthenos which means virgin. other example is the word ruah, which in the Greek translation connoted the un-Jewish concept of spirit-versus-body. In the course of their long and rich history, the Jewish people have gone(a) through intensive intellectual and emotional experiences. They have experimented with life and its problems problems of the kin of man to man, of man to God, problems of human destiny and of the impact of cosmic forces upon mankind. They have known joys and suffering, hope and despair.They have given voice to all these experi- Home TOC Index The Role of Hebrew in Jewish Life 11 ences in their own distinctive Hebrew idiom. Language and experience have become intertwined so that one cannot be in full mastered without the other. Who can render in suitable translation the overtones, the cluster of associations and allusions attached to such expressions as shema yisrael, kiddush ha-shem, hillul ha-shem, mesirut nefesh, and a host of others? It cannot be done. Yet such expressions epitomise the warp and woof of our historical religious and national experiences.These expressions stir in every conscious Jew feelings and images such as could neer be evoked in any other language. In the words of Shema Yisrael, for example, we hear echoes and reverberations of the agonize cries of our martyrs from the days of Akiba down to the rebels of the Warsaw Ghetto. In comparison the English equivalent, Hear, O Israel, sounds flat and insipid. Similarly, the terms kiddush ha-Shem (sanctification of the Name) and hillul ha-Shem (profanation of the Name) are the obverse and reverse of a concept which epitomizes Jewish martyrology throughout the ages.This concept has been a mainspring of traditional Jewish conduct, by word or act, with the view of hallowing Gods attend, even at the insecurity of death, through proper conduct and avoiding deeds which might profane the name of God. The term mesirut nefesh, likewise, connotes t he idea of self-sacrifice and readiness to devote ones life to an ideal. The English equivalents of these terms fail exclusively to convey even a shade of the meaning of these repositories of Jewish experiences. Language is, of course, the symbol of meaning, or the expression of ideas by means of articulate sounds or graphic representations of these sounds.Yet, meaning is not inherent in the sounds or the words, but rather in our personal and group experiences which are fused with the especial(a) words. In themselves words have no meanings it is our reactions to them or our experiences with them that lend them their meaning. What the words mean or convey to us depends on the nature, extent and intensity of our experiences, direct or vicarious, with Home TOC Index 12 Hebrew The Eternal Language them. The word democracy, for example, means one thing to an American, and something entirely different to a Russian communist.The term crusade awakens in the minds of Jews clusters of hi storical memories and associations totally at unevenness with those in the minds of Christian peoples. Words are set in the line of business of the experience of the people employing them. When transposed from one experiential orbit into another by means of translation or borrowing, the words change their meaning. sometimes our experiences are blended and associated with specific forms of the word, with its particular orthoepy or configuration, and only these forms will convey to us meaning to its fullest extent.A radical change in the form, even of the same word, such as a difference of pronunciation or spelling, may at the outset fail to evoke our experiences associated with the particular word. Hence there is often resistance to spelling reforms or to changes in pronunciation, as for example, in the case of Hebrew, from Ashkenazic to Sephardic, and vice versa. An attempt by Itamar Ben Avi and others, some(prenominal) years ago, to change the Hebrew to Latin script proved inc onstant in the face of serious opposition. It should therefore be clear that language cannot be taken as a sort of currency or medium of exchange.Words in one language cannot be rendered by their equivalents in another language without losing something vitally and essentially peculiar to the mentality and genius of the people employing the tongue. It is a delusion to assume that one can fully understand the essence of Judaism in any language but Hebrew. As indicated previously, one cannot get the old and genuine message of the Bible in a translation, however effectively executed. Our Sages likened the day on which the Bible was translated into Greek to the day when the Golden Calf was made, for the Torah does not lend itself to an adequate translation. Dr. Max L. Margolis, editor of the Jewish Publication Society Bible translation, asserted It ofttimes happens that the translator, vainly seeking an equivalent for a Hebrew word or phrase, Home TOC Index The Role of Hebrew in Jewi sh Life 13 realizes that translation deals not so much with words as with civilizations. Consequently, some of the most significant and indispensable sources of Judaism must remain in a certain sense sealed books to those who do not know Hebrew.The wisdom of the Sages, the poetry of Ibn Gabirol, Judah Halevi, Bialik and Chernichovski or the prose of Mendele, Peretz and Agnon can never be rendered adequately in English or any other language. Nearly every word, every turn of expression or locution employed by these masters of Hebrew literature, springs from the bed-rock of Jewish experiences, literary sources and Jewish folklore, and stirs within us memories, associations and images, such as no translations, however artistically done, can duplicate. Home TOC Index Home TOC IndexART PART ONE How the Language Began to Be Spoken Home TOC Index Home TOC Index CHAPTER ONE HEBREW AND THE LANGUAGES OF valet de chambre Ancient Attempts to Identify the Original Language How many languages are there in the world? How did these languages arise? Did they evolve from one ancient language, or are they to be traced to several basic languages? What was this primeval language, or which were the basic languages? These questions have attracted wide attention among the inquisitive minds of the ancients as well as of modern scholars.The Greek historian Herodotus reports an experiment conducted by Psammetichus, king of Egypt (sixth hundred B. C. E. ), with the object of discovering what race of men was first created or evolved. He took two newborn babes, haphazardly selected, and placed them in the charge of a goat herder with strict instructions to bring them up on goats milk and to isolate them from any human contacts, so that no word of human speech might reach their ears. In this manner, the king hoped, the children would finally yield to the promptings of nature and break out into human speech representing the primeval language of the original human race.The expe riment succeeded, according to Herodotus. One day, after two years had passed, as the 17 Home TOC Index 18 Hebrew The Eternal Language goatherd opened the door of the lonely hut to serve the children their daily portion of milk, they cried out Bekos and held out their hands. The goatherd reported this to the king, and upon investigation the king discovered that bekos was the Phrygian word for bread. He thereupon conclude that the Phrygians were the first race of men.The story bears, of course, the earmarks of pure racial propaganda. It is calculated to picture the superiority of the Grecian race, the kinsmen of the Phrygians according to Greek tradition, by attributing to them a high rank in antiquity than that of the Egyptians. But this experiment was not unique. Similar experiments are said to have been conducted in later ages by the Mongolian emperor Akbar Khan (sixteenth snow), the German emperor Frederick the Second (thirteenth vitamin C), and King crowd IV of Scot land (fifteenth cytosine).The last-named is reported to have shut two infants up with a dumb woman on the island of Inchkeith and ordered them kept there until they were old enough to speak perfectly. These children are said by some to have spoken a pure Hebrew, although the chronicler himself entertained some doubts on the subject. Hebrewthe Mother of Languages There was, indeed, a time when Jews as well as Christians believed that all the languages of mankind derived from Hebrew, the language spoken by turn and Eve in the Garden of Eden. This is, of course, to be inferred from the biblical accounts.Thus Eve was called Hawwah because she was the mother of all living (hai, Genesis 3. 20). Similarly, the woman was called ishshah because she was taken out of man (ish, ibid. , 2. 23). 1 In no other language besides Hebrew, the rabbis argued, do we adjust the terms for man and woman derived from the same root. The Hebrew language, it is therefore to be assumed according to them, was created simultaneously with the world and was the language employed by God in his conversations with Adam and Eve. 2 When Abraham was born, all Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 19 he dignitaries of Nimrods judgeship wanted to destroy him, says an old midrashic account, and he was hidden in a cave for thirteen years. When he came out of the cave he spoke Hebrew. 3 It (Hebrew) is, according to tradition, the language in which God spoke to Adam and Eve and in which they spoke between themselves (Judah Halevi). This traditional view is reiterated time and again during the Middle Ages and later by both Jews and non-Jews. Among the theses offered by the first class of Harvard graduates in 1642 was one entitled Hebrea est Linguarum Mater (Hebrew is the mother of the languages).Non-Jewish sources resorted to all sorts of whimsical etymologies to prove that the origin of European languages is to be found in Hebrew. 4 In his introduction to the Pentateuch, Moses Mendelss ohn restates the view of the primacy of Hebrew and attempts to advance supernumerary proof in its corroboration. It was only after the fiasco of the Tower of Babel, according to the biblical tradition, that the Lord did there confound the languages of the earth and from thence did the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth (Genesis 11. ). Thus, says rabbinic tradition, evolved the languages of mankind, tally seventy-two (or seventy), twentytwo of which were spoken by the descendants of Japheth, twenty-four by the children of Ham, and twenty-six by the children of Shem. 5 Modern Studies of Indo-European Languages Toward the end of the eighteenth century the study of linguistic science was given strong impetus by the discovery of Sanskrit and the recognition of the relationship of this language to Greek and Latin. It was then and during the major part of the ineteenth century that the Aryan or Indo-European languages were place and subjected to attentive study an d scrutiny. No one knows how many languages there are in the world. They certainly can be counted in the thousands. Many of them Home TOC Index 20 Hebrew The Eternal Language are unrecorded in writing and may disappear without leaving a trace, as many unrecorded languages have doubtlessly disappeared already, while others are known from very scanty records. The majority of the languages of the world are probably those which have never been committed to writing by any of their native speakers.The most exhaustively investigated language family is the IndoEuropean. This family includes such languages, and language groups, as Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Armenian, Albanese, Celtic, Slavic, Baltic and Germanic. The Germanic group, to which English blend ins, is probably the most widely employed, and English is now the most far-flung of all languages in the world. However, the language which is known to have retained the superlative number of original forms of the Germanic dialect is Ice landic, a language spoken today by about 100,000 persons.Similarly, Lithuanian, one of the two surviving languages of the Baltic branch, spoken by several million people who live on the borders of Prussia and Russia, is said to have preserved many of the forms of Indo-European speech in a less corrupted condition than any of its European cogeners, aye, than any dialect of the entire family which is not at least two thousand years older6 All these language groups have been identified as divergent forms of a single prehistoric language, hypothetically named rough Indo-European.No records of this primitive language are for sale, but this may be a mere historic accident. The oldest known member, or near relation, of this family is an extinct language, spoken by the Hittites, a people widely mentioned in the Bible and even regarded by the prophet Ezekiel as among the ancestors of the Hebrew people (Ezekiel 16. 3, 45). The available documents in that language already deciphered are writ ten in a form of the cuneiform syllabarya wedge-like form of characters having syllabic rather than alphabetic value. These documents date back to about the fifteenth century B.C. E. opposite Hittite documents, written in hieroglyphic script, have already been well-nigh deciphered. Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 21 Hittite Hieroglyphic Writing From I. J. Gelb, A Study of Writing (University of Chicago Press), 1952, page 83. Semitic Languages The language family which concerns us most at this time is that designated since 1781 as Semitic. The origin of this designation is the genealogical record of Genesis 10. 2131, according to which the peoples employing these languages were descendants of Shem, son of Noah.These peoples occupied a territory extending from the Mediterranean to the other side of the Euphrates up to the Tigris, or Mesopotamia, and from the mountains of Armenia to the southern slide of Arabia. Through oppressions and migrations these language s spread also to parts of Africa and Europe. The Canaanites (Phoenicians, etc. , Genesis 10. 1520) are traced in the Bible back to Ham, probably on account of their being a tangled race and also because, owing to their paganism, they were regarded with contempt by the biblical writers. However, their language is clearly a branch of the Semitic family, and the prophet Isaiah (19. 8) refers to Home TOC Index 22 Hebrew The Eternal Language Branches of the Semitic Language Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 23 Geographical Distribution of the Semitic Languages Home TOC Index 24 Hebrew The Eternal Language Hebrew as the language of Canaan (sefat Canaan). Most of these languages are now dead, some having go away important literary legacies. The only languages of this family still spoken, besides Hebrew, are Arabic, Ethiopic, and, to a contain extent, Syriac or Aramaic.The Semitic languages are loosely split up into the following branches A. East Semitic Assyri an-Babylonian or Akkadian. This language is known now from rolls on stone and clay, in cuneiform writing, dating back to about 2500 B. C. E. In this language were written the Code of Hammurabi (around 1800 B. C. E. ), the Amarna letters (1400 B. C. E. ) and other important documents. It was at one time widely in vogue in the Orient in official circles. It was there a sort of tongue franca, an international language. deeplyr, around the middle of the first half in the last millennium B.C. E. , it was superseded by Aramaic. B. Northwest Semitic 1. Aramaic Branch. a. Eastern Aramaic or Syriac, of which the language of the Babylonian Talmud is a Jewish modification. b. Palestinian or Western Aramaic, which is represented by portions of the Palestinian Gemara and the Targumim (Bible translations generally included in the traditional Jewish editions of the Bible). The Aramaic portions of the Bible may also belong in this category, although some modern scholars challenge the possibility of establishing the local identity of these portions.At that early period, when these documents were written, no distinction between Eastern and Western Aramaic existed, according to these scholars. The oldest documents in the Aramaic language date from the eighth century B. C. E. A few centuries later, especially around Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 25 the beginning of the Christian Era, Aramaic gained wide currency over large tracts of Western Asia, superseding several languages, among them Assyrian, and to a considerable extent also Hebrew.The theory held by some Jewish and non-Jewish scholars that Aramaic had completely displaced Hebrew is without any foundation and has been effectively disproved. But Aramaic undoubtedly exercised a tremendous influence on the evolution of the Hebrew language, and left its impress upon it. For about a millennium (from about 700 B. C. E. to around 650 C. E. ) Aramaic was employed as the official language of the Near East, until it was replaced by Arabic as one result of the Mohammedan conquests (of the seventh century C. E. ). When Assyria conquered the Aramean states and incorporated them into its empire, it adopted the language of the anquished. The spread of this language was facilitated especially by the Persian Empire which flourished during the fifth to third centuries B. C. E. The imperial policy of Persia was generally favorable to the preservation of the national mores and culture of its subject peoples. The Persian chancery accordingly chose to correspond with the provinces of Western Asia in their own peculiar dialect, Aramaic. Aramaic is still spoken by a few thousand Syrian Christians and Jews in Kurdistan, and various other isolated localities in the Orient on the borders of Persia, Iraq, Turkey and in Syria near Damascus.A considerable number of the Aramaic-speaking Kurdish Jews have recently immigrated into Israel. 2. Middle Semitic or Canaanite Branch. a. Moabitic, known especially from the celebrated inscription of King Mesha, ninth century B. C. E. The character and significance of this inscription will be discussed in a subsequent chapter. b. Phoenician, the language spoken in Phoenicia, as well as in the Phoenician addiction of Carthage in North Africa, close to the present site of Tunis. The Phoenicians continue to come out themselves as Canaanites down to the Roman period.Its oldest known inscriptions are of the Home TOC Index 26 Hebrew The Eternal Language twelfth or fourteenth century before the Christian Era. Around the early part of the first millennium B. C. E. , Phoenician enjoyed the status of an international language in Syria and nearby coastal Asia Minor, until it was replaced by Aramaic by the end of the eighth century. It continued to flourish in Carthage until several centuries into the Christian Era, and was still spoken in the time of Augustine in the fifth century C. E. c.Hebrew. The oldest portions of the Hebrew Bible probably date back to about 1300 B. C. E. , and the language has never ceased to be employed in most Jewish localities as a literary medium, as well as for purposes of written (if not spoken) intercommunication. In oral use it has been restricted largely to houses of worship and study, although there is ample evidence to prove that even for conversational purposes oral Hebrew has been employed, in a limited degree and in certain localities, throughout the history of the Jewish people.Furthermore, many words and expressions dealing with intimate personal and national experiences have been incorporated into the various languages spoken by the Jewish people in the lands of their dispersion. Similarly, many Hebrew idioms have infiltrated, in translated forms, into the various Jewish dialects, such as Yiddish and Ladino (a Judaeo-Spanish dialect), and have persisted there to this day. In modern times the vitality and adaptability of the Hebrew language have been demonstrated to a peculiar degree, as a spoken language in Israel, and in many Jewish communities outside of Israel. . Ugaritic. A vast and significant literature has been Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 27 unearthed since 1930, shedding much light on biblical literature and language, in modern Ras Shamra, on the coast of Syria, opposite Cyprus. This Canaanitic literature was written in an alphabetic cuneiform script, indicating consonants and even some vowels. It contains epic poems typical of ancient Canaanite religion and civilization during the Late Bronze Age, when Ras Shamra was the site of Ugarit, the wealthiest Canaanite city.In language and style, this literature resembles to a remarkable degree the poetic portions of the Bible. Biblical literature and language must have been influenced tremendously by the highly developed culture and civilization of Ugarit. 3. atomic number 42 Semitic. a. Arabic and its various dialects. The earliest records of Arabic are of the third century B. C. E. Since the seventh century C. E. the territory of the language has extended, as a result of the Mohammedan conquests, to embrace large tracts of Asia and Africa. It is now in oral and written use by nearly forty millions of eople, besides serving as the sacred and official language of Islam. b. Ethiopic and its dialects. This language is used on the east coast of Africa (Abyssinia). It emerged into the light of history towards the beginning of the fourth century C. E. , directly after the conversion of the Abyssinian Kingdom to Christianity. The language is still used in Abyssinia in modern dialects. Uniformity vs. novelty in Languages Attempts were made by students of language to discern relationships between the Indo-European and the Semitic lan- gt Home TOC Index 28 Hebrew The Eternal Language guages. These attempts stem from the assumption that both these language families evolved from the same parental stock. In proof of this assumption scholars adduce the examples of the He brew banah (built) and the Latin pono (compare English exponent, expound) also baar and Greek pyr from which originate the English pyre, pyro-, and fire Hebrew yayin (wine), Greek oinos, Latin vinum, Arabic waynun Hebrew sheba, Sanskrit saptan, Latin septem, English seven. A medieval Jewish scholar collected over two thousand Hebrew words, which, in his opinion, were the basis of a similar number of words in Latin, Greek and Italian. 7 Such attempts are now largely discredited. If there is a relationship between the two language families, and there may be, the available evidence is inadequate and inconclusive. Mutual borrowing and mere accident may account for these relationships. The division of languages is, according to biblical tradition, a curse or punishment inflicted upon mankind for the daring attempt of the people of Shinar to erect there a tower, with its top in heaven (Genesis 11).To this day the multiplicity of languages is viewed by some people as an affliction responsi ble for misunderstanding and controversy among individuals, groups and nations. If people spoke a common language, it is held, discords would disappear, wars would be eliminated, peace and good will would reign in the world. Unsuccessful attempts have accordingly been made to devise a universal language, or to urge the adoption of one of the most widespread languages as a common language. That the adoption of a common language will serve as an effective instrumentality of peace is highly questionable.History can record many wars among peoples employing the same language. But it is a matter of grave doubt whether the adoption of a common language is feasible. Even if the peoples of the world would consent to adopt such a language, it would in the course of time split up into various, mutually alien languages and dialects. We may note, as an illustration, the tendency of American English to deviate in its development, both Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 29 in idiom and style, from British English.Even in the same country the people of certain generations find it difficult or impossible to understand the language of their ancestors several generations back. It may, incidentally, be seriously questioned whether the adoption of a common language would be desirable from a cultural point of view, even if it were possible. A common language would impose, to a considerable degree, common cultural and literary patterns. witnesser the influence of English culture and literature on early American life and literature. Such a language would certainly result in the impoverishment of world culture and civilization.The Trend in Language towards Diversity Language (Sprache in German, lashon or safah in Hebrew), as indicated by its etymology, is fundamentally a speech experience. It is transmitted by word of mouth from parents to children. We speak and pronounce words as we hear them spoken and pronounced by our elders, who in turn learned them from ge nerations preceding them. It seems quite obvious to us that we speak exactly as do our parents and elders, and they believe they do the like with reference to the generation which preceded them. Yet, over a period of several generations there have been evident linguistic changes and modifications.The language of Shakespeare is no longer the English we speak while the fourteenth century English of Chaucer, and far more so the English of Alfred the undischarged of the ninth century, are to us nearly foreign tongues. When, for example, was the Latin senior reduced to the French sire and the English sir? When did the Anglo-Saxon deofol (Latin diabolus) evolve into the modern English devil? How did these radical changes in form and pronunciation occur? When did they inject themselves into the language? Each generation of speakers would certainly disclaim responsibility.Evidently the process of language transmission is imperfect. Both our earshot and our capacity for articulating or imit ating Home TOC Index 30 Hebrew The Eternal Language the sounds which we hear are imperfect and inexact. Hence language is subject to modification and change. Both growth and decay are characteristics of language development, as they are of biological development. Some phonic elements gradually disintegrate and disappear, while new ones sprout and emerge. Occasionally, the variations are so great as to produce an entirely new offshoot, a new dialect or a new member of the language family.Two main factors generally operate as controls in the process of linguistic change (1) isolation and (2) possession of written records. A people occupying a circumscribed territory and relatively unexposed to contacts with other races or peoples is more likely to preserve the original forms of its speech than a people bent on expansion, migration or collision with other races and peoples. Similarly a common literature often exercises a strong fusty influence on the language and shields it from t he intrusion of alien elements and from radical phonetic and dialectical divergencies.For this reason, the changes in English since Shakespeares time are not as pronounced as those during the interval between his period and that of Chaucer, and they are especially less significant than the changes during the five centuries preceding Chaucer, when England was assimilating the Normans. 8 Reason for Relative Unity in the Hebrew Language The literary control on linguistic change is particularly marked when, as in the case of the Hebrew language, the common literature is integrated with the religious traditions and experiences of the people.The Hebrew people were thrown into contact and collision with other people. Its vocabulary was considerably enriched by the admission of numerous foreign words borrowed from the many peoples among whom they dwelt. Yet the original linguistic pattern of Hebrew remained more or less intact. Thus we speak of biblical Hebrew as a unitary phase of the lang uage, distinguished by typical characteristics of grammar and style. Yet, the interval between the earliest biblical documents, such as the Song of Moses or the Home TOC Index Hebrew and the Languages of Mankind 1 Song of Deborah, on the one hand, and the books of Koheleth and Esther, on the other, is as long as the interval separating the period of Alfred the Great from our own day. Furthermore, the twenty-two centuries subsequent to the biblical period failed to impair the pristine pattern of the language. The result is that modern Hebrew writers may choose to employ biblical Hebrew as the medium of their literary expression, without the need of apology and without fearing that their belles-lettres will be incomprehensible or even regarded as unduly archaic.What is the explanation, in the case of Hebrew, of this unique linguistic phenomenon? How did the Hebrew language escape the transmuting effects of time which are in evidence in other languages? To be sure, the fact that t he ancient biblical texts lacked a amend system of vocalization and were very scantily supplied with vowel-signs is in large total responsible for the seeming phonetic uniformity of the Hebrew language. But it cannot be doubted that the Bible and the esteem with which it has been cherished throughout the centuries, counteracted and prevented fundamental changes in the construction of the language.Unlike Latin, which has been the language of the Catholic church, that is, of the clergy, without becoming the language of the faithful or of the multitude, the study of biblical Hebrew has been pursued throughout the generations by young and old with more or less zeal and assiduity. A great many new wordcoinages, word-forms and idioms have indeed been added to the language since the days of the Bible. Yet the original organic pattern of the language remains intact.To this day children in master(a) grades are trained and grounded in the intricacies of biblical Hebrew, while in the writi ngs of practically every Hebrew author one may find a goodly number of word-structures, phrases, and turns of expression typical of the Bible. As a matter of fact, modern Hebrew sometimes shows preference for biblical usages over mishnaic or medieval usages. The biblical phrases and expressions of thirty-five centuries ago tucker with vitality and vigor almost on a par with the language spoken in Israel today. Home TOC Index CHAPTER TWO HOW THE HEBREW LANGUAGE BEGAN Aramaic Background of Hebrew Some forty centuries ago, during the first half of the second millennium B. C. E. , a family or clan led by a chieftain named Terah, emigratedso the biblical tradition has itfrom UrKasdim, a city of immemorial antiquity in Babylonia, to Haran in northwestern Mesopotamia, with the intention of proceeding from there into the land of Canaan For unspecified reasons Terah and his clansmen settled in Haran and apparently fling the idea of journeying on.It must have been a long time after settli ng in Haran that one of the sons of Terah, named Abram (later renamed Abraham), after his fathers death, received a call from God saying Get thee out of thy country . . . unto the land that I will show thee. Whereupon Abram, heeding the call, resumed the journey into Canaan, taking with him Sarai his wife, and Lot his brothers son, and all their substance that they had gathered, and the souls that they had gotten in Haran . . . and into the land of Canaan they came. This clan, headed by Abram, was by no means a erratic or bedouin band.It was made up of settled or semi-settled herdsmen, who migrated with their wives and children and with their servants, cattle and other belongings. Abram must, ac32 Home TOC Index How the Hebrew Language Began 33 cordingly, have achieved in Haran considerable status and authority. Jewish tradition explains his departure from there by attributing to him a revulsion from the idolatrous practices prevalent in his native land and by the call to go f orth and establish a new and great nation in the land of Canaan. It was to be a rather peaceful venture.Yet, we find Abram capable of mustering fighting forces among his clansmen and allies adequate to set on and defeat the armies of four victorious kings, and thus retrieve his nephew Lot and all the booty that had been captured from five defeated kings headed by those of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 14). Furthermore, Abimelekh, the Philistine king of Gerar, was desirous to conclude with him a treaty of peace the native Amorites, Mamre, Eshkol and Aner, were his confederates while the Hittites accorded him note and referred to him as a mighty prince (ibid. 23. 6). In the traditions of the Babylonians, Greeks, Romans, and other peoples, Abram would undoubtedly have been described as a mighty chieftain leading a victorious invasion. His heroic exploits and glorious feats of conquest would have constituted the typography of epic sagas and poems. But the Torah, as the etymology of t he term implies, is primarily designed to teach moral and religious lessons, not to tell stories or report historical events.Hence, all these warlike exploits in the life of the fathers of the Jewish people are glossed over and mentioned only incidentally. During a period of famine, Abram and his clansmen traveled to Egypt, but only for a brief sojourn. As soon as conditions improved they returned to Canaan, where they were to make their permanent home. They were part of a wave of migration that gravitated from the north and the east during the first half of the second millennium B. C. E. toward the grasslands of the more fertile South, with the object of conquest and occupation.This desire to seek fresh woods and pastures new was undoubte

Communication and Crisis Paper Essay

A crisis is an occurrence that exceeds a persons normal copy ability Du Pr (2005). When upset(prenominal), sudden parts occur it affects a community. When things happen that we argon non prep ard for, it merchantman develop chaos and negative knocked come out(p)comes finish occur. One of the most common unexpected situations is natural disaster, when nature decides to unexpectedly show us what it is capable, sometimes it bottom be devastating. However, man make disaster nooky also occur and cause just as much devastation. Hurricane Katrina and The Three Mile Island thermo atomic reactor are salient examples of disasters that ca apply great alarm and devastation. These two were deal antithetical and communicated in distinguishable moods to the populace because of the technology and resources available at the time it happen. As a handler of a regional Emergency Management Office, exploitation these two scenarios as learning experience depart help construct a cast to address within the government as fountainhead as with the frequent to try to use exceed practices to avoid uniform mis hold backs in order to be successful at communicating to a greater extent(prenominal)over not alarming the community.It allow for be heavy to take into attachment the examples and appropriate chat channesl to use inside and out-of-door the institution, as substanti completelyy as analyzing the advantages and ch solelyenges faced to communicate with contrary groups outside the arranging as salubrious as the public. Individual or groups that leave be communicating inside and outside the constitution As a regional film director of this Management Office, the main job is to keep people up to view of the situation at hand. The cosmic string of command is critical to making legitimate services and resources are utilized in a timely stylus without duplication Shover (2007). The start-off step is to communicate every ane in the organization of t he situation at hand by an immediate phone collection with upper restrainment followed by a memo to the rest of theorganization with a visualise of consummation.If a crisis is not well handled that can alter the organizations reputation and credibility Hicks (2012). It go away be important to appoint a spokes person to be in charged of dealing with the media, and also create a hot line for people to c every last(predicate) with concerns regarding the situation. Simultaneously, contact all local and public health agencies, pronounce public health agencies, federal public agencies, any Emergency medical services, hospitals, nongovernmental response such as American Red Cross, CERT, Faith based organization as well as business. According to Shover (2007) The Standard Emergency Management frame (SEMS) (Governors Office, 1994) is an incident command system (ICS) and was initiated into California law in 1991. The basics of SEMS are to enhance coordination and colloquy of instru ction and mutual caution resources between local and state authorities during an soupcon.By employ the state and governmental agencies, it give up help to use their communication channels, since they communicate with individually former(a), it will create a fast response and at the same time it cause that the public to get good communication with out creating a brat. Advantages and Challenges Associated with talk with The Groups One of the biggest challenges with communicating with various groups in this situation will be trying to keep everyone calmed and up to date with all the appropriate information within the organization as well as other groups outside the organization. Many organizations create a comprehensive crisis plans in order to be active for any crisis Hicks (2012). If people with in the organization are not aware of what is termination on, and what plan to implement, they will not be able to act appropriately and perform their job duties, and that can cause a bigger chaos.The directors job is to be able to choose appropriate communication channels to keep all the employees in the organization informed as well with a plan of action to portray a guts of calmness regardless of what is press release on and that can be hard. If the appropriate communication channels are not used, they organization can fall apart and the public will suffer the effects of their challenges. If the public is not informed of what is going on using the reclaim channels of communication, they will feel a smack of distrust and panic can arise. That is why is important to keep the information simple, accurate, honest and delivered in a timely manner. If they are issues where they dont know the answer its ok to say so kinda of backinformation. The public sine qua nons to know that there will be an action plan in order and that the organization has the situation under tick off. luck the public to understand the roles of the assorted agencies will help them to keep involved. If other organizations dont keep calm, accordingly they can also can cause a bigger chaos which will make the doubly is hard to deal with the original situation. presently not only they will energise to worry about the life-threatening biological divisor situation, plainly now they will need to figure out a way to keep everyone calm and that can slow down the operation of the emergency plan at hand. Advantages of keeping everyone informed will help in managing the crisis at hand and increase in productivity within and out side the organization. If all the employees of the organization are well informed of what is going on, they will be able to perform all their duties accordingly, making easier to manage the situation. If all the other agencies and private sectors are well communicated of the local organizations plan of action, they can help support their efforts. Keeping everyone calmed and bighearted them options of what can be done and what other organizat ions are doing to support the public will help create a sense of cohesiveness and control of the situation which will in exchange keep everyone calmed.Differences in Communication Processes UsedThe crisis situations with the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor used different sources of communication that the ones used with Hurricane Katrina. What they had in common is that hey used the best communication that they had available at the time. In the case of the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor they used the three major networks and local radio place which was the best and much efficient way to inform people at that time. In the case of Hurricane Katrina since there was more technology available they used newer sources like internet, cell phones, text messages and other websites to break up information which was the best sources to get the information to the public.Because most of the local channels of radio and picture were affected and the al-Qaidas was affected they had to expan d communication to outside of the community to run resources in. Of course television and radio was used, but compared with the Three Mile Island reactor more technology was available. Taking this into consideration, as a Regional Directors job, finding the correct channels todisseminate the information will be a big task and using the most up to day and the most effective channels will be the constitute to success. Depending of the crisis or disaster at hand the right on channels need to be used initially and if the initial channels are not effective it will be important to reassess to be more successful.Appropriate Technology to UseIn the case of the biological agent crisis, the director will make sure that the correct channels of communication are used. Different channels are available at different times to try to reach different types of population. Phone, as well as hot lines, local, surrounding, state wide and even countrywide communities radio, newspaper, television, inter net, other organizations websites, electronic mail to other agencies and distribution lists, favorable media, blogs, photo videos like Skype, You Tube will be appropriate. It will be important to keep in intellectual all of the possible channels that people have available and unavailable to make sure no one is left uninformed.Print media will be easy to distribute to big and small groups within and outside the organization. Multimedia like TV will help engage bounteous audiences, and easy to remember. Internet will be fast, simple, intended for those that are more technology savvy. The use of smart phones, text will help make up rise to using social media as well for fast, and spreadable information.How Technology Differs from the Scenarios to NowThe technology was used different in the scenarios due to the time and availability at the time as well as the difference in the type of scenario. For example in the case of Three Mile nuclear reactor television and local radio was th e main way to disseminate the information because that was the most effective form at that time. Also the type of thread didnt affect any infrastructure, which was the case in Hurricane Katrina. Since the infrastructure was affected, they used Television and radio outside the local area and instead they used more Internet and newer technology to reach a more people to get help from the outside in. The technology now compared with the one in 1979 with the Three mile nuclear reactor is definitely different and more effective, how ever between Katrina and now there is not as much difference other than a lot of more social media, blogging and Photo video are more common now then during that time.Media OpportunitiesAs a director of the regional Management Office using the media will be beneficial. It will be important to keep in mind the advantages and disadvantages of this source of communication because if it not used appropriately it can back fire in the progress and success of mainta ining calm and correct consistent message. According to Stephenson, (1982) currents media have a vested interest in catastrophes, therefore, The key is to make sure the organization come forth first with the right and credible information as well as provide people with information currently available and keep them updated to avoid the media to take over and creates chaos. Make sure to appoint a spokes person in behalf of the organization to give the updates to the media to make sure the correct information is passed to the public and other agencies. As an organization making sure the spokes person understands the enormousness of this role is key because critical decision will need to be made during this crisis period Hicks (2012).When a crisis arises people tend to feel a big sense of change and it can result in sense of temporary or permanent change that can cause panic and or denial, that is why is important to always have a plan when disasters or emergencies occur. During those intriguing trying to come up with a root right there in there can be challenging but if you have a plan to fall back on it can release some stress during a stressful situation. When unexpected happens you will never be one hundred percent prepared because two situations are not exactly the same but when you have some type of emergency plan in place as well as preparation your organization or family will be more equipped to face the challenges.When natural and man made disasters or emergencies occur like Hurricane Katrina and The Three mile nuclear reactor scenario is important have a plan and be able to keep as many people informed and safe. Thinking about the right strategies and the right use of communication channels as well as the union with other organization will help to the success and safety of the people.ReferencesDu Pr, A. (2005). Communicating About Health. Current Issues and Perspectives (2nd ed.). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database. Sh over, H. (2007). Understanding the chain ofcommunication during a disaster. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 43(1), 4-14. Retrieved from http//search.proquest.com/docview/200766796?accountid=458 Stephenson, D. R. (1982). How To Turn Pitfalls Into Opportunities In Crisis Situations. humankind Relations Quarterly, 27(3), 11. Hicks, Nancy. j. (2012). Health Industry Communication New Media, New Methods, New Message,. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Always Logistics Case Study Essay

forever Logistics is feeling to perform a forensic business relationship study on their financial statements, in pieceicular to accounting periods cease in the last five historic period. Mr. Jim G allbally, has claimed authority to oversee the fraud busy over the Comp boths profit-sharing incentive for its administrative-level employees via a whistleblower account, and this would dominate a study on their sales revenues data and their internal turn back systems. The intention of the assurance habituate is to supplement the fraud concern be raised by Mr.Gallbally to the senior management of the Company.Moreover, he intends to apply a full force of the law to those mental faculty who have purposefully expand revenue inflow for personal financial gain, should the claims were to be founded. I am expecting your full interest with this engagement, and you may extend your intention to this engagement via the contact details that I leave behind come through. I have link th e details of my initial discussion with the client and our conditions of acceptance prior to the proletariat of such engagement.Attachments Details of the Interview conducted with Mr. Jim Gallbally, may 2010 Conditions of Acceptance for the Assurance Engagement, May 2010 Attachment 1 Details of the Interview conducted with Mr. Jim Gallbally, May 2010 A cheering annual exploit bonus is paid to each divisional coach based on individual outputs as swell up as come up troupe performance. There is a profit share scheme for all non award (administrative) level employees of Always. The Chairperson of Always is Margot Hellicar. A stock broking firm, Warm, Symes and Co is actively canvassing senior employees of Always to invest in the party by taking out loans which may be subject to border calls. Some board members have been k right offn to speak favourably of such loans. A healthy demand for Always stock has seen their share value outperform the market index for the past four historic period. Always is dual-lane into divisions based on each state or territory. Depots are rigid in all states and the Northern Territory with Canberra depot part of the NSW operation.These depots have about 5-8 staff in each location universe a senior manager, two financial or clerical staff with the rest being award level depot receipt and language staff. Head Office in Brisbane has 10 administrative staff and is where the chief executive officer and CFO are located, along with the computer system and all the company financial records. The company has had some tight cash flow issues over the past few years but always manages to survive though the support of their bankers or through finding new delivery contracts, especially in the Northern Territory and North West Queensland. Conditions of Acceptance1. The circulate would consist of the assessment of the Companys internal insure systems, and the wisdom of the financial statements and adjunct disclosures issued i n the last five years, and depart non be of opinion of the canvasors. Should there be an opinion that will build up in the stemma of the report and analyses, a adjunct report will be issued in conformance of the take stocking standards 2. The report would consist of somatic factors to the true(a) bon manipulations amounts and managerial judgement with regard to the way out of annual bonuses to its administrative-level employees3. The auditors will quell their professional independence with regard to the conduct of the audit, as in concord to section 3. 5 of Professional Independence code of the rhetorical explanation Standards (APES 215) 4. The report will be in compliance with the International Auditing Standards and Forensic invoice Standards (APES 215), and determine the accounting principles compliance in relation to the Australian Accounting Standards Board 5.The auditors will maintain their professional competence and guide due care in the performance of their exertion in conformation with Section 130 Professional Competence and due Care of the reckon (3. 11) of the Forensic Accounting Standards (APES 215) 6. The private information acquired or have deliberated during the course of the audit shall only be used in the professional performance of the audit done and therefore proper permission must be acquired in accordance to Section 140 of the Forensic Accounting Standards (APES 215). espousal LETTERTo the Chairman of the Board Margot Hellicar (or the appropriate senior management or board of directors) of Always Logistics As pass along by several of your shareholders, notably Mr. Jim Gallbally, we will conduct an audit of Always Logisticss financial records, in particular, your cash flows, sales revenue records and notes to the financial statements for the last five years then accounting year ended December 31. We would care to take our acceptance and have understood the terms of this engagement by the issuance of this letter.Our audit will be conducted with the intention of providing an objective perspective on the financial statements and the financial performance of your Company for the last five years from accounting period ended December 31, 2009, and the recent concerns pertaining to your profit-sharing incentive lauded by significant numbers of your shareholders. We will accept the engagement offered and conduct the put acrossed audit in accordance to the following accounting and auditing standards the International Auditing Standards, the Accounting Professional and Ethics Standards (APES), and the International Standards of Assurance Engagements.The following will be used as to outline the engagement to be undertaken, and that the audit is in conforme with auditing criteria that may or may not be con tryed in a legal proceeding. The following is withal to properly address the allegations of your administrative divisions misconstruing financial numbers that may be material to possible misstatement s on your sales revenues and your overall financial status for the last five years.The audit will include examining evidence to be acquired supporting the amounts and disclosures to the sales revenues, and also the data being used of your administrative divisions on a test basis, and assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement deportation. With regard to the possible limitations and the spirit of the test that will be conducted in the duration of the engagement, there will be auditing risks that there will be misstatements that may be material enough will not be detected.This is due to the inherent limitations that has and is present of the accounting and internal control systems your company has pick out for your business operations. As such, we would like to express our intention to use audit reports from previous auditors, work of persons of interest, or your internal auditors, if there were any conducted prior to this engagement, for comparison purposes and to lighten us in confounding such allegations lauded against the financial status of your Company.However, we would like to stress that because of the necessity that may arise to use previous audit reports or muniments of a similar standing, the overall assessment will now be our responsibility, and will be subject to any repercussions, legal or otherwise, towards the result of the assessment. In addition to our auditing report for the purpose of this engagement, we expect to provide you with a separate letter or enumeration on any material weaknesses in the accounting and internal control systems that your company has adopted that we have come to be of concern of in the duration and the destruction of our audit.However, we would like to restate that as this is not the purposeful intention of the audit, this supplementary document may or may not be of use that may demonstrate the effectiveness of you r incumbent accounting and internal control systems, and that it would be your decision on whether to act upon our observations for the purpose of amending or ratifying your current accounting and internal control systems, with regard to the conclusion of the engagement.In compliance with the Forensic Accounting Standards, the working papers prepared in partnership with our audit are the sole property of the auditing firm and constitute confidential information that is privy to the firm and to your Company. They will be retained by our auditing firm in accordance with our firm policies and procedures. However, we will grant uncover of the working papers via a request from a regulator or a person of authority in the context of the practice of law.The regulator may produce photocopies or replications of the report and may ultimately set to distribute the copies or replications to other parties of interest, including government agencies. The responsibility for the preparation and comely disclosure of the financial statements to be procured as requested is that of the management of Always Logistics, either by its financial or accounting department, the board of directors, or any outfit or department that represents the Company.This includes any maintenance of equal to(predicate) accounting records and internal controls, the selection and justification of the accounting policies to be applied, the activity of accounting policies, the safeguarding of assets of the company, and other supplementary or aggregate data that would farther assist us in our audit. In line with this, we duly request a written confirmation from you, the board of directors or the senior management, regarding representations concerning the audit to be conducted in the matter of transparency and the rule of law.Should you intend to bother our comprehensive and conclusive audit report on your financial statements and administrative operations with regard to the allegations of sales reve nues padding activities, we require you to produce a printers proof or masters copy for review or flattery prior to the final print and distribution of the say report.We are looking forward to the companys full cooperation from your staff and/or effect who will be involved for the procedural utmost of this engagement, and that we fully dedicate the responsibility from your good company that all requested and mandatory documents, including its supplementary or aggregate papers, and systems access will be made in stock(predicate) to us with regard to the conduct of the engagement.Our auditing fees, which will be classified as working progress or works in progress in your accounting journals and general ledger, will be based on the prison term that will be spent by our accountants assigned for the procedural completion of the engagement plus outright yet necessary expenses. We will use the Companys staff at any possible sentence or event to assist us in the conduct of the sched ules to be followed as per process regarding the audit and the analyses of the accounts and business units in question.We believe that this would gentle us with the time requirements, the timely or rather immediate conclusion of the engagement, and the savings that will be generated and beneficial for you with regard to the audit fees. This document will be effective for the time being of the engagement unless the agree party will be making changes, cancel the engagement, or if the said engagement will be interrupted by a rule of law. Kindly affix your signature and forward the attached copy of this document to signify your understanding and agreement of the engagement.