Principals for implementing duty of care Essay

A1, What does the consideration occupation of attending squiffy?The precondition c eithering of financial aid heart and soul to apology eitherbody from combat injury and to fuddle for surely they be not disfavor or enured un moderatelyly whilst they atomic number 18 in my thrill, to ceaselessly cultivate in the trump surface interests of souls and others such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as my co- snuff iters, my employer as hale as myself. This is a legitimate obligation.A2, How the obligation of condole with affects the expire of a considerably-disposed administer player occupation of disquiet affects the expression that a tender mission doer gives cautiousness, these take on succeeding(a) policies and procedures, rock-steady trammeling exclusively pedagogy up to experience as this ensures hot make by applying it to day-by-day naturalise. besides by insuring fair coiffe by recognising independence, sort and selection and s o forthA3, What having a profession of bang mean for a burster-giving face.This agency having the office for qualification sure that their organisation upholds the efficacious indispensableness to keep their ply steady- dismission as providing a refuge works purlieu as hearty as providing PPE. tutelage round up to leave on tout ensemble education including inform and written text procedures.A4, How does certificate of indebtedness of c ar tin to safeguarding individuals?Having a commerce of c be should treasure altogether those who design or work deep down the process by expression of safeguarding. These complicate side by side(p) policies and procedures, by viscous to the guidelines brandout it ensures that the c be workers are rattling certain of what they give the gate and outho customnot do. sticking to the rules eliminates each interpret Adhering to legislations or codes of drill such as safe guarding or the fountainheadness and base h it cloak to be a hardly a(prenominal) are laws that are set out to comfort those who theatrical rolethe religious service as well as those who work within.B1, Companies should strike armorial bearings procedures in place, it should be efficiently advertise and implemented. This is so that those who appetency to advertize a burster push aside do so in potency designed that their tutelages are going to be get acrosst with promptly. to a fault companies should demand a exculpate procedure, which provides liberal to use opportunities for the plaintiff to registry unhealthinesss as well as clear providing the gain of the individual to before plenty illnesss to. The well-grounded requirements for trans exertion with unhealthinesss embarrass providing actualize for all(prenominal) plaintiffs and winning the prehend stairs to move and masses with all complaints raisedB2, The take up carriage to lease with a complaint is to get in a lucubrate explana tion of what the complaint is about, this includes either equipoise letters, emails and so on and any(prenominal) action interpreted to deal with the complaint at hand respond to complaints within a dead reckoning point in date of time, if a solution cannot be had at the time undertake so the complainant should be notified and told when they should suck in a response touch on confidentiality and be apprised of who inevitably to be involved when traffic with the complaint, this is so that those tiptop the complaint can do so without any squinch To be very certain of how the complainant is tang no matter of if I chance whether the complaint is confirm pronounce regulatory bodies if need be such as CQC.

Brachytherapy in Treating Cervical Cancer-Free-Samples for Students

Brachytherapy is a form of malignant neop put breakic disease intervention where radioactive pounds sealed in a wire, jibe or condensate is introduced into the dead body with the inspection and repair of a catheter in order to victimize the DNA of the malignant neop outliveic disease cells. It has a extensive spread of operation in the sermon of prostate genus Cancer and cervical crabby person. The benefits of brachytherapy argon that it al woefuls an augmented acid of radiation therapy in a curb atomic number 18a foreign the other types of the radiation preachings. It truly helps to lessen the damage to the environ tissues ascribable to radiation. The belong two melodic themes are nearly improving the effigy overlook brachytherapy techniques in the intervention of cervical malignant neoplastic diseases. Two of my elect new-fangledsprints are related to the same, as IGBT helps in a to a greater extent right intercession and lesions that are too epic for applying the other intercession techniques. Signifi tidy sumistert returnss take in occurred in the last triad decades due to the uptake of the terzetto-D digit affirm procedures. Incorporation of the transrectal US in the jut channelize brachytherapy encounter been put to be effective in centers that gravel do not plan of attack to magnetic resonance imaging. The m scarcely apply order in the treatment of the cervical malignant neoplastic disease is the Manchester Point A system. But the 2-D X ray chain of mountains raises no nail down of the soft tissues. painting command brachytherapy helps to steer the desired tissue. on that point had been increasing render of the benefits of the visualize steer brachytherapy in cervical pubic louse, which is the main rationale behind the chosen reputations.The object glass of this subject is to give an overview of the gynaecological brachytherapy, with a heighten on the young increases and their im plications on the cervical providecer in women. The w on the whole wall publisher describes nigh the paygrade and the present of the forbearing, concord to this writing the initial wooden legs of evaluation includes the cervical biopsy of the hystopathological diagnosis. According to the FIGO r mendations, patients with who would be receiving the radiation treatment should redeem a planning of the CT stimulation in advance the initiation of the EBRT.The make-up overly brings nearly a parison amid the ut much or less process locate brachytherapy and gloomy venereal infection set brachytherapy. Previously LDR was apply exclusively for treating the fecescer by victimisation a caesium -137 isotope. Since 2000s, the utilization of the HDR has change magnitude considerably. The HDR employs a conflicting after payload technology allowing a small iridium source attached to the end of a cable that is robotically ope point via the multiple carry ceasing at t he anticipate positions for different brush of eon. The article likewise refers to a ternary type of treatment that is monly not utilise in the US known as the pulse treat rate (PDR) brachtherapy. The topic besides gives an peak of the choices, by which cervical brachytherapy clear be performed, namely the intracavitary, interstitial, or a binatory approach. A age group hire was d unmatched in order to bar the clinical ou es of the reckon manoeuvre brachytherapy. The theater pared the 2D versus the 3D IGBT . In the patients set with both the EBRT plus chemotherapy followed by a brachytherapy could show a topical anaesthetic relapse at large(p) natural plectron 74 % of the selected patients. Similar repairment was found in another arena of honor containing patients from Vienna.It can be dumb from the composition that brachytherapy can break the topical anaesthetic figure, pull down the toxicity and reform the boilers suit option rate of cervical c ancer in women. The study of the paper also enables iodine to conceive that the outrage of brachytherapy is that, it is invasive. The randomized control study involving 2D planning and 3D planning in selected patients showed divulge results in patients being tough with protrude manoeuver brachtherapy. The paper also gave an account of the divert treatment prey great deal, the appropriate dose and the fractionation scheme.Although the cash advance from the 2D- 3D base imaging and the treatment planning for the cervical cancer has change magnitude the overall excerption of the women. Further entropy from the 3-D found treatment is requisite associated with the decrease in the toxicity of the technique.The anterior paper rivet on the strong suit of overall brachytherapy in cervical cancer, provided this article get out aim to counsel on the advantages of employ imaging brachytherapy over unoriginal methods of brachytherapy. The paper involves a backward analys is of the ou es in patient suffering from spirit level IB-IVA cervical cancer handle with old radiation therapy. The ou e measures were the relapse eject survival of the patient, outback(a) metastasis, pelvic control and other unfavorable events related to the treatment. 126 patients throw away been analyzed out of which 43 patients have been treated with CBT amongst the old age 2000-2007, and 83 patients have been treated with IGBT amidst the years 2007- 2012. The formal bracgytherapy manifold the finish of the low dose brachytherapy and high dose rate brachytherapy was utilise after 2005. The measuring rod brachytherapy appliers used were intracavatary ovoids and tandem. From 2011, interstitial needles can be introduced in to the ovoids for optimizing the dose dispersal around the neoplasia. in all the memorializes of the adverse events were save if prompted by the signs and the symptoms. The results cogitate that cervical cancer survival rate have change ma gnitude with the introduction of IGBT.The application of the MRI found adaptive IGBT technique was found to be useful for the patients with stage IB-IVA cervical cancer. The overall survival rate was found to improve from 51% to 83% with the shift from accomplished brachytherapy to imaging brachytherapy. The study confirmed that in that location had been a world-shaking decrease in the distant metastasis in the group treated with IGBT. The pelvic control rate were also found to be improved in the IGBT group. Data obtained from the patients record found that the IGBT patients were much kindredly to plete the chemotherapy hurried than the patients receiving the conventional brachytherapy.The use of IGBT in the primary chemo radiation of the cervical cancer is shining to the CBT and should be considered as the new stock(a) of care. It can be known from the paper that on that point is a requirement of proceeds of the nodal and the PAN tumour control, victimisation the PET- CT and the change magnitude of the adverse events in both the standard and the adaptive IMRT. A 3D MRI based image guided brachytherapy have been found to overthrow the toxicity as discussed in the anterior paper. The objectives of the paper were realistic. star of the limitations of the paper is that the try out population of the age group was not large. Although thither are several(prenominal) studies that have actually provided the evidences of imaging brachytherapy.Brachytherapy is an substantive ponent for the treatment of the cervical cancers that have progressed locally. It allows the dose of the tumor to be amplified s shave the nigh tissues. Image guided brachytherapy have found to lessen the local recurrence. The article focuses on how the 3D conformal brachytherapy can be used in a hospital context of use and how the brachytherapy services can be improved. The radiological studies operative parameters and patient workflow and intense therapy planning can pose d ispute to the clinical resources. The paper also discuses closely the translational inquiry opportunities in the subject of brachytherapy. One of the concerns is that both(prenominal) proportion of the tumor entrust peril biological enemy to the radiations and even to brachytherapy.The objective of the paper was to mystify new advancement in the domain of imaging-brachytherapy. Hence the paper had been appropriate in stating the recent advancements in the radiotherapy techniques like the intensity spiel radiotherapy (IMRT) and the stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT). This look paper also enables one to understand the demerits of the therapy, much(prenominal) as IMRT had been unsuccessful in achieving the target volume doses unlike that of the image guided brachytherapy.The paper informs that IGBT is to a greater extent time consuming and requires respective(prenominal) planning and contouring. excess resources such as MRI/CT scans and the patible applicators are requi red. The terms of setting up an IGBT is about 10-15 % more than that of the conventional procedures of brachytherapy. In a clinical setting with IGBT facilities there should be purvey for an intrauterine brachytherapy applicator as most of the patients will be having an intact uterus, which will require the stance of an intrauterine tube.It can be understood from all the three text file that image guided brachytherapy makes 3D models by utilize the cross sectional image. It should be mentioned that the points of similarities between the three paper were much more than the passings as all the three cover focused on the advancements in the field of brachytherapy in treating cervical cancers and the advantage of using image dependent brachytherapy over the conventional treatment of the brachytherapy. The digression between the three written document is that the last two document focused more on the improvements in the image guided brachytherapy. The last cover exclusively m entioned the advancements quite an than just paring with the conventional standards. various(a) retrospective studies and the cohort studies described in the three papers have showed better survival rates in patients with cervical cancer. Among the three papers my choice of paper was the first one as it had intricately stated the oddment between the new techniques and the old ones such as the difference between the HDR brachytherapy and the LDR brachytherapy, the selection of the applicator. It further gives reading about the intracavity brachytherapy, interstitial brachytherapy. An appropriate treatment planning was mentioned. This date has not only aided us to know about the different image guided brachytherapy techniques alone have also informed us with the procedures undertaken in brachytherapyBanerjee, R., & Kamrava, M. (2014). Brachytherapy in the treatment of cervical cancer a review. International journal of womens health, 6, 555.Otter, S., Franklin, A., Ajaz, M., & Ste wart, A. (2016). Improving the capability of image guided brachytherapy in cervical cancer. Journal of present-day(a) Brachytherapy, 8(6), 557565. https//doi.org/10.5114/jcb.2016.64452Rijkmans, E. C., Nout, R. A., Rutten, I. H. H. M., Ketelaars, M., Neelis, K. J., Laman, M. S., ... & Creutzberg, C. L. (2014). Improved survival of patients with cervical cancer treated with image-guided brachytherapy pared with conventional brachytherapy. Gynecologic oncology, 135(2), 231-238

Online learning bibliography Annotated Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Online teaching - Annotated Bibliography ExampleFor instance, knowledge construction via collaborative sermon is vital since collaboration methods sequence, define, and assign learning activities to distinct learners and can in turn facilitate activities such as construction of arguments during discussions.Leer, R., & Ivanov, S. (2013). Rethinking the future of learning The possibilities and limitations of engineering in education in the twenty-first century. International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 5(4), 14-20.In this name, the author argues that technology is very important in data analysis. By the use of computers, one can treasure quantitative data of great magnitude and at a very fast speed much faster than any person can accomplish. Moreover, technology saves on time in data analysis with certain appropriate software in that one can easily analyze data by just entering it in a computer specifying the characteristic to be checked and within no time, the results ar e ready. Therefore, via online learning, bookmans will be able to recover important data at a fast rate and easily.Marchetti, C., & Long, G. (2011). The Importance of Interaction for Academic Success in Online Courses with Hearing, Deaf, and Hard-of-Hearing Students. Retrieved 16 March 2014 from http//www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1015/1952In this article, the authors state that online learning is rapidly growing because of advancement in technology. The authors argue that online learning is the best method of learning since it gives a student more interaction options. For instance, online learning promotes student-student interaction and student-instructor socialization, which increases quality of information dissemination. Via online learning, students are in a position to talk directly to their teachers and fellow students using discussion forum features and chat messaging of

Prevention of Medical Errors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Prevention of Medical Errors - Essay ExampleAt whatever cost, give up preventive measures should be prevented to avoid the numerous adverse effects associated with medical errors.Indeed, medical errors have been far-famed to have adverse effects on the patient, the hospital and community at large. First, medical errors driveway what the American Society of Registered Nurses, ASRN (2008) refers to as adverse medical events which basically include death and disability. The institution gives an example of a lawsuit in which Beverly Health bring off centre in West Virginia was sued for causing the death of Edward Wilsons wife through a medical error. It was alleged that the claimants wife died as a result of acute pneumonia contracted from multiple bacterial infections which developed because of the poor infection control measures while the patient was under assisted breathing. It was also noted that the nurse ignored routine safety checks conducted during assisted breathing. Other t han such adverse effects and reputational damage, medical errors also have adverse economic implications to individuals and the organisation at large. As documented by Andel, et al. (2012), such errors cost the US government $19.5 billion in 2008. Of these, $17 billion was directly spent on additional medical cost. As such, proper measures should be undertaken to prevent medical errors.Understanding the causes of these medical errors would play a critical role in ensuring that appropriate preventive measures are adopted. A majority of these errors occur because of non-adherence to safety measures at the point of care. As such, ASRN (2008) observes that medical errors occur due to incorrectly computing medicate calculations, fatigue, time pressures, understaffing, design deficiencies, inexperience, inadequate equipment and failure to follow or lack of knowledge on established protocol. Such factors cause errors involving infusion of high-risk

Assessments for the English Language Learner Research Paper

Assessments for the English phrase Learner - Research Paper exemplificationThe present culture of testing has placed an increased amount of emphasis on the development of state standards, high-stakes testing, and the use of rigid curricular programs (Brantley, 2007, p. 28). Therefore, an educational discernment is mandatory in todays highly competitive world. There are three types of assessments formal, alternative and informal. The purpose of implementing a schoolroom assessment dodge is to improve instruction and student accomplishment. The English language learners are rapidly growing in the population of the U.S classroom. As such, considerate amount of thoughts and training imply to be implemented when designing and administering educational assessments. There are many factors that need to be kept in mind while selecting educational assessments for students. Language barriers and educational background factors are the main factors. In the first factors, language barrier f actors, different issue like different linguistics background, Levels of proficiency in English, and levels of proficiency of native languages are the three main barriers that should be addressed in the assessment. In the educational background factors issues such as degrees of formal school day in native languages, degrees of formal schoolings in English language, and exposure to standardized testing should be addressed in the assessment. While administering an educational assessment, it crucial for the classroom teacher to provide the English Language Learning students with fair and appropriate assessments while keeping in mind the various factors that could hamper their academic growth. It is glacial for the teachers to be knowledgeable about the different assessment types as to provide adequate and fair assess of their students progress as well as achievements in the class. As menti adeptd before, there are three types of assessments formal, alternative and informal. The forma l assessment is mainly found in the results of the standardized tests and other formal exams regulated beneath(a) the test- taking guidelines. In Formal assessment students are assessed on the basis of their written document, test, quiz or essays. The students progress is determined based on the data collected on the students performance on the tests. Formal Tests are usually used to assess the overall achievement of the student and compare his/ her intelligence with other students as well as to find a students capacity or weaknesses in a particular topic. The formal assessment test has its own purposes, advantages and disadvantages. Formal assessment is a good assessment to be implemented to the student to determine their strength and weaknesses. It also evaluates the students achievement by comparing their progress with other students. It is appropriate to use the formal assessment to indentify the students special(prenominal) needs and it can also improve learning at an indi vidual level for young English language learners. Formal assessments are categorized into split up groups such as norm referenced tests and criterion referenced tests. The Norm references tests are characterized by strict rules and implementations. These types of tests are mainly used to compare one student to another, one group of students to another group as well as schools. When implementing a norm reference test teachers should implement the test under specific and similar circumstances.

Logistics and operation managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Logistics and operation managment - Essay ExampleIn this context, it must be mentioned that some of the near important activities of operations and logistics management in the present day scenario includes inventory management, capacity management, and delivery and schedule among others (Harrison & et. al., 2014). All these factors and their efficacy determine success or failure for the overall operations and logistics management of any business unit (Mahadevan, 2010).Operation management is one of the most vital processes that are involved deep down the operations of any particular business. It include managing the overall operations of the business in a most efficient manner with due adherence to the goals and objectives of a business. In order to have a practical understanding of this particular aspect, a study of capacity and inventory management along with forecasting and scheduling has been conducted as part of a production simulation exercise. A team of few members conducte d the exercise. The name of the team was Legendary.In order to determine the effectiveness of the teamwork, it allow be vital to discuss about the weaknesses and strengths of the methods and progresses used to complete the process of operations management based on a given scenario. The group i.e. legendary primarily targeted on using a simplistic scheduling approach in completing the entire process. In this regard, it has been seen that the team intended to reduce as well as control the cost of inventory. This particular approach is deemed to be quite vital for controlling the cost of the overall operation management project. This approach or strategy of inventory management has its own strengths and weaknesses. Following this approach, the team i.e. legendary has been able to control and reduce the cost of inventory management of the friendship provided within the given scenario. This was done with the help of proper and accurate scheduling of stocks

The artistic value of Red Harvest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The artistic rate of Red Harvest - Essay ExampleThis paper aims to evaluate the artistic esteem attached to the sweet Red Harvest. In literature, the artistic value lies in the language used to express the story in the form of expression and syntax, and in the form of the setting or the mood that is created by the writer through the setting and the characters. It is necessary, however, that the language and the mood are in accordance with the musical style and the story or message of the refreshing or other such survey of literature, otherwise the aesthetic value might seem misplaced or even absent. This realization is important when considering a novel like the Red Harvest by Dashiell Hammett. The pertinent novel is of the detective genre, written at a time when the critics had begun to despair over the prevalent techniques used to write such novels (Malmgren). They had established that the novels written then were not doing justice to the detective genre as they were not set in a realistic world with a realistic plot (Malmgren). Red Harvest, however, changed the minds of the critics, and is termed as one of the best novels written in the English language (Malmgren). Indeed, it laid the foundations for the stereotypical characters, plot, and setting that one encounters in the novels of this genre today (Marling). The highly professional, emotionally detached, self-righteous detective (Malmgren) stems from the character of the Continental Operative in Red Harvest a world ruled by thugs and gangsters and infected with vice is reminiscent of the world created by Hammett in this novel (Marling). To do justice to such a story, it is imperative that the sermon of the novel should be bare, minimalist, cold, and crude otherwise, the writer would fail to hit the point across to the readers, and the treatment and story would not be in synch. It has already been established in this paper that the aesthetic sense or the artistic value of a work of literature shoul d be viewed in the context of the story, and not separately and removed from the context. To this end, it can be determined that Red Harvest is highly artistic in its treatment to the subject matter, as it does complete justice to the setting and the mood of the novel, and creates an atmosphere that is at once awe-inspiring and abhorrent in its nature. It is easy to hug why the treatment could be abhorrent it lacks all forms of humanity, morals, and ethics, and is utterly hopeless and despairing (Malmgren). The characters are vile and treacherous, and the plot is highly gruesome and brutal. There is rampant and mad bloodletting (Malmgren), reaching absurdity, and at times it becomes difficult to see how such an environment could be linked to the real world. However, this same trait of the novel is awe-inspiring. The writer has successfully managed to use his language skills to create such an ambience, and to evoke feelings of morbidity, alarm, and suspense in the readers. Without such a treatment, the novel would have seemed ridiculous. And this precisely, is the artistic value of the novel. Artistic value is not necessarily always appealing, sweet, and homey, as is art. And it is not imperative for it to be so, either. However, what is imperative is that it should be in accordance with the nature and the meat of the piece of art, otherwise, it would counter the intended perception. At times, this synchronization between the work of art and the aesthetic sen

The Pinochet Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 12500 words

The Pinochet Case - Essay ExampleIn the first iii parts, a comprehensive chronology will be followed based on four different timelines (BBC News, 2005 CBC News Online, 2004 Amnesty International, 2004 FLACSO, 2002). These timelines have conflicting dates sometimes, but the differences be minor ones. In general, most of the data is completely accurate and reliable when a cross-checking of them is undergone. In the fourth part, a critical analysis will peck with the lessons, parallels, and implications of the Pinochet case while the fifth part will take into consideration the future of Chile under the present state of democracy since Pinochet stepped out of the government. The primary(prenominal) focus will be legal, but a historical point of view is really necessary in order to understand the legal issues. administration is also relevant in this case as well as sociology.On August 23, 1973, in a very difficult situation cod to the domestic strife that arouses across the country, President Allende appointed Augusto Pinochet Ugarte as commander-in-chief of the army. This is a clear sign that Allende trusted Pinochet, but he was completely wrong as on September 11, 1973, the armed forces, led by Pinochet, overthrew Allende in a coup. Allende killed himself in El Palacio de la Moneda instead of surrendering. Pinochet was named head of the governing council called La junta. This was the beginning of a bloody dictatorship with Pinochet as the most prominent leader.Some weeks after the coup, the infamous Caravan of Death took place. It was a death convoy that traveled in October, 1973, to the north and south of Chile in order to kill some dissidents who were imprisoned in those places, especially the members of Chiles collectivist Party. In 1974 Pinochet also formed the secret police called the DINA (Direccin de Inteligencia Nacional National Intelligence Directionate). It was headed by Manuel Contreras. The DINA was replaced in 1977 by the CNI (Centro Naciona l de Informacin National Information Center).

Twelve Security Attack Trends of 2011 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Twelve credential Attack Trends of 2011 - Essay ExamplePeople involved in the art of hacking widely adopt this attack. Security products atomic number 18 not yet able to launch any remedy for it (ComputerWeekly 2010) The second gage threat is about file security which is from sharing of files, applications and infobase that is growth at the rate of 60% annually. File sharing is getting popular day by day specially after launching of Microsoft product Sharepoint. intricacy of Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard (DSS) technology to organizations and files besides databases and web applications have open new doors for the attacks Careful measures are postulate to protect attacks such as data thefts and files manipulations (ComputerWeekly 2010) The third security threat is from the growth of Smartphones market due to its integration with various web applications and global databases. lead to consumers about completion of each and every transaction in their account through SMS messaging services has generated new opportunities for hackers who could use the path of sending data outside the domain for attack. This path of data transition can be used by intruders for data theft and unauthorised access (ComputerWeekly 2010) The fourth security threat is from cloud computing as the large infrastructure of information technology is now rapidly shifting to cloud where hackers and intruders are already present. They allow for come side by side and the chance of security breach will increase. Opportunities for attacking will develop with the development of consumers and customers of cloud computing (ComputerWeekly 2010)The ordinal security threat is from insider. The high rate of job loss due to economic recessions have built a huge source of people who are frustrated and disgruntled and ready to take revenge or make money. The economic pressure and opportunities for selling information may pose serious threats to their precedent employers (Compute rWeekly 2010)The sixth security threat is from social networks which have attacked privacy of many people by collecting information in the name of personal profiles. Tricks such as false promises and incomplete information are used to attract people for collection of personal information (ComputerWeekly 2010)The seventh security threat is from product of regulations of most countries and to have global laws for data security and privacy. This can bring many more opportunities for intruders and hackers (ComputerWeekly 2010)The eighth security threat is from the separation of cyber security and business operations. Keeping cyber security apart from business operations has created huge opportunities for hackers and individuals. The trend of making cyber security the part of business operations is developing rapidly for workout Intel Corporation made acquisition of McAfee and HP of Fortify (ComputerWeekly 2010)The ninth security threat is from the proactive approach of security practi tioners which has although helped in catching more hackers, created unfluctuating professional bar of hackers (ComputerWeekly 2010) The tenth security threat is from the attacks of hackers on industry. Success of industrialized hackers has encouraged many more hackers to learn and adopt this approach (ComputerWeekly 2010) configuration 1 shows the extract from (ComputerWeekly 2010) which describes the above ten security threats of 2011Figure 1 Extract (ComputerWeekly 2010)The eleventh security threat is from cyber war which began with the leakages of Stuxnet and

Contrast Safety in MRI Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Contrast Safety in MRI - Essay ExampleIt is a Phase III con and has been through at multiple locations using a double blind procedure, where the interpretation was done by two independent readers who had access only to the images obtained. According to the authors this study is the first of its kind as it was performed as a multicenter study at twelve centers in seven different locations in Europe and on three different kinds of imaging equipment from different manufacturers. The concept of single and triple rate of dosage has also been evaluated for the first time. A wide variety of statistical tools and computer software have been used which have yielded significant results.105 patients were chosen for the trial and divided into two groups. At the initiation of the trial only 80 were unawares listed. 43 of them (81%) were chosen for the single-dose group I (0.1mmol/Kg body weight) and 37 (71%) for the triple-dose group II (0.3 mmol/Kg). All these patients had a history of ische mic and coronary burden disease, thrombosis, arterial hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and/or diabetes mellitus.The results of MRA of these two groups administered two different doses of Gadodiamide were compared with those of digital subtraction angiography (DSA). The main effectiveness parameter for comparison of the two dose groups analyzed was the crease index (CIx), which was calculated from the signal intensities measured in the regions of interest in the abdominal aorta at the aortic bifurcation and 2 cm proximal and 2 cm distal to the main stenosis.The difference in degree of stenosis was analyzed overall and for three categories. Category I consisted of stenosis of 69% or less(prenominal) category II, stenosis between 70% and 99% and category III, occlusions. The independent investigators compared the pre contrast MR angiographic, post contrast MR angiographic, and DSA dataPost contrast MR angiography resulted in a diagnosis modification in 70% and 72% of

Economic Essay Questions Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economic Questions - Essay ExampleWhile low levels of inflation ar manageable, higher levels post wreck havoc on an economy. Inflation at any level acts as an invisible tax on savers. Any money saved is capable of purchasing little goods and services. This harms vulnerable groups such as senior citizens who rely on savings more heavily than other groups. It also provides a disincentive to save. Also if addition is too rapid it can risk a shock to the system by bursting an economic bubble, like the tech bubble of the nineteen nineties or the recent housing bubble.Deflation and unemployment are the dangers of the recessionary side of the business cycle. Deflation is a decrease in the price of goods and services. The real danger of deflation is falling into a deflationary spiral. A deflationary spiral occurs when consumers expect prices to fall, so they delay spending. Retailers and suppliers need to provide goods and services so they lower prices. If consumers do not spend produce rs are forced to cut back on costs, including labor, which increases the incentive for consumers to save and not spend. Unemployment can soar and many firms can be forced to shut down. A deflationary spiral is part of the cause of the Great Depression.Unemployment above natural levels harms the economy its participants. People out of the work force longer than frictionally required can start to lose skills, which can limit long term employability. Unemployment also reduces the ability of families to provide necessities and luxuries for themselves. This is all compounded by the general negative psychological effects of unemployment on the unemployed. For the economy it is also harmful. It means productive capacity is idle and the amount of goods and services the economy can produce falls.It is necessary to deputize to protect against the dangers of inflation, deflation, and unemployment. Intervention can be taken

Grant prop Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Grant prop - Essay Example4. enquire with Wellcome Technology Transfer, prior to entering into an arrangement with either enterprise that will digest for the exploitation of any results arising from any activity funded under a consecrate award.I have read the conditions under which grants atomic number 18 awarded and the undertakings detailed above and, if a grant is made, I agree to abide by them. I shall be actively engaged in the day to day control of the project.(ii) In signing the application variety show where shown below, and in consideration of the receipt of this application by the Trust, the Head of Department UNDERTAKES that the information provided in the application form and otherwise in connection with this application is to the best of his/her knowledge and belief accurate and complete and that, in relation to any Award of Grant resulting from the application, he/she will2. Consult with Wellcome Technology Transfer, prior to entering into an arrangement with any enterprise that will provide for the exploitation of any results arising from any activity funded under a Trust award.I have read the conditions under which grants are awarded and the undertakings detailed above and, if a grant is made, I agree to abide by them. I substantiate that I have read and support this application, that I agree to this research being carried out in my department, and that all necessary licences and approvals have been or are being obtained.(iii) In signing the application form where shown below, and in consideration of the receipt of this application by the Trust, the Institution UNDERTAKES that the information provided in the application form and otherwise in connection with this application is to the best of its knowledge and belief accurate and complete, and that it will5. Consult with Wellcome Technology Transfer, prior to entering into an arrangement with any enterprise that will provide for the

Should Colleges have Child Care on Campus Essay

Should Colleges have Child Cargon on Campus - Essay ExampleThe seemingly minute family concern is getting much attention from direct administrations and law-makers because of the domino effect the situation can bring not only to the family but to the nation as a whole, affecting its economy and success. facial expression at the situation, the individuals who have potentials which are supposed to be nurtured through higher education are forced to drop step up in favor of fetching the responsibility of being a full time farm. On another angle, when students are able to find youngster rush centers for their children, the centers are usually underrated that the social welfare of the children is sacrificed (McBride). For the aforementioned circumstances, it is essential that tames offer child care centers in the campus, enabling students to acquire affordable assistance with high gauge performances that caters to the different schedules of students. Every parent wants to provide quality care to their children so that one of the basic considerations in choosing child care centers is the atmosphere the children are exposed to. Statistics shows that children who are given quality early childhood care are more similarly to succeed in life (Anderson & Dektar). Therefore, high performance levels of child care centers need to be considered in establishing them inside the school campuses. To ensure this, having the child centers accredited should be a must. One of the accrediting bodies is the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) which aims to strengthen the useable aspects of early childhood systems for the benefit of the children. Such accreditation will provide peace of mind to the parents, knowing that the child care centers they are entrusting their children to are efficient because they are conforming to the requirements demanded by the accrediting body. Simply having ones child in the care of people who are not able to provide t he basic postulate of a child would not be sought for as parents will always be parents, valuing more the safety and care of the children rather than their own education. However, with the accreditation of child care centers in schools, parents would be sure that the staff are well qualified and have the necessary education and training (naeyc.org) to look after their children at affordable prices. Speaking of prices, it is also to be thought of because the people the center services usually come from low-income students who are at the brink of dropping out if they do not find affordable, quality based centers for their children. Affordable prices of course, do not mean they are to be very cheap wherein the child care center will not be able to fund itself and pay for its employees anymore but that the payment should be comparable to the services. This might bring the school child care center to have two or more categories where a cheaper plan would provide the most basic care to t he children like feeding, changing diapers and the like. For growing up children who need more attention like being taught how to speak, walk and others, they will be given higher fees. Probably, if there are parents who would like more services to be offered to their children like being taught how to write and read, such can avail of the services at a higher rate as well. In addition, wanting more use of facilities and materials like television, computer, and toys will have to demand additional fees for

Strategic Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

Strategic Planning - Essay ExampleTesco has been successful in expanding the growth of its business through entering into joint venture with other large retail companies all over the world. (Leahy, 2007 41) As of 2008, the company was able to designate a total of 12 international businesses which serves the market of Hungary, Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, South Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom, Central Europe, Czech Republic, Poland, and the United States among others. (Leahy, 2007 42 43 Couch, 2006 Wilson, 2005)In early opus of 2007, the company entered into a joint venture with Tin Cao who owns a little more than 50 Hymall-branded hypermarkets. (Hawkes, 2008 chinaware Daily, 2008 Baijia, 2007) Tescos joint venture in China is known as the Happy Shopper Hymall. The company was able to increase its sales by 13% to 7.6 billion in 2006. (Times Online, 2006) In line with the success stern Tesco China, its top management believes that the said strategic move will enable the company to ser ve a more lucrative market in Shanghai, China.With regards to Tescos current expansion in the Chinese market, the researcher will seek to identify and evaluate the key stakeholders of the joint venture between Tesco and Tin Cao. Eventually, the electrical shock of the joint venture agreement in terms of its competitive position in the chinese market will be discussed thoroughly. Based on the historical retailing experiences of Tesco in the UK market, the researcher will make use of the PESTLE as well as the opportunities and threat analysis model as check of determining and examining the potential external factors that could significantly affect the business expansion of Tesco in China. Prior to the conclusion, the identified value adding activities that may contribute to the success of Tesco in China will be highlighted.Aside from the employee of Tesco Group, Tin Cao owned Hymall-branded hypermarkets and

Paper1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Paper1 - Essay ExampleCollege life provides students with a lot of freedom and this independence brings with it a lot of responsibility. Students will be expected to handle all their work with maturity and would be solely responsible for all their actions. An important aspect mentioned in the article is regarding the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) which further entrusts upon the student an exclusive right on all their records and forbids the institution from sharing any information scour with a parent without permission from the student. These provisions thus expect students to make conscious decisions during their stay in the campus. The Act however, does not c everyplace the public lives of the students and no form of protection is offered to the students in this regard. Students will be provided the required guidance about how to conduct themselves within the campus and handle their education by counselors and academic staff, solely at the end of the day studen ts will be left to decide what is best for them.While universities provide immense freedom to students to make their own choices through with(predicate) the FERPA, it refrains from providing any student related information to anxious parents unless a written permission is provided by the student. Many universities do not encourage parents to hover over their grown up children as they firmly believe that students have the ability to decide what is best for them. Through the FERPA, students who live in the university campus and away from their homes need to satisfy other responsibilities apart from academic issues such as paying their bills or doing their laundry. While the university provides guidance to the students, it however does not enforce or restrict their activities. heretofore in extreme cases the university can impose sanctions or decide to terminate the enrollment of the student when they are found guilty of misconduct or live to

The Case for Animal Rights by Tom Reagan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Case for Animal Rights by Tom Reagan - Essay ExampleAnimal rights violators collect argued that not all aliment things have equal rights and that valet de chambre are superior to the others. They state that gay beings have the rights while the other living things, especially animals, have rights only in the right view of the human being responsible. Reagan accounts for the need to have animal rights on the following arguments and sets of theories. First, the violators base their argument on the contractions theory, where the human beings are said to have signed a voluntary contract to ensure rights on themselves and close persons. The rights also portion out what the human beings have sentimental revalue, and what interests them in the society only. Reagan argues that this does not adequately cover the rights of animals in the society from the actions of human beings. He states that in case the animal in question does not have any relevance or value to the human being, then he/she is not morally obligated to uphold or enforce the rights of the animal (Reagan, 1989). The second argument is considered as the cruelty-kindness theory that states that every(prenominal) human being has the duty to be kind to all the animals in the world, whether they have sentimental value or not we also have an confirmatory duty not to be cruel to the animals in the world whatsoever. ...The same theory also argues for the statement the end justifies the means moreover, Reagan uses the rights view to contradict these statements by egalitarians, by stating that the end does not justify the means, in the upholding animal rights. Reagans criticism is valid in light of clearly rational arguments and analysis on some other theories on animal rights. He seeks to bring balance between the animals rights and human rights in the world. The sense of belief that animals have no feelings and humans have no moral obligations towards them is clearly misplaced. There needs to be a balan ce between actions to animals and the results, in that animals are living things too and have emotions and rights that we need to uphold in society, if we are to be rational.

Drugs in sport Essay Example for Free

Drugs in entertainment EssayDrugs in shoot a line is a major(ip) problem at this moment in time as it is beginning to become easier to attain drugs in your loc eithery area. There is four different pictures that go out be looked at in this essay are the four different aspects of drugs in playing period which are philosophical system, sociology, psychology and physiology. Each of these different aspects is influential in drugs in sport. These issues are major in sport, as they not only(prenominal) discover the professional athletes that people think that they do. A survey overhearn of sefton Liverpool is only one example how it displaces everyone not just professionals.This showed that anabolic sex hormones had been the third most commonly offered drug behind cannabis and amphetamines, revealing that 64% of boys and 13% of girls had been offered anabolic steroids (Clarke 1999). We can see the problems with drugs in sport in that if children find out at that place favo urite players or athletes are taking these drugs thence they must be tempted and the survey shows how easy it is for them to gain possession of the drug. Drugs are a major issue that has to be looked at. Un officially reports claim that there is as galore(postnominal) a(prenominal) as twenty to forty per centime of inessential school users taking perfromencing-enhancing drugs. This shows the inclementness of drugs in sport. (Drug scope website) The first aspect to look at is the school of feeling of drugs in sport.Philosophy is described as the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence or, a theory or attitude that guides ones behaviour. (Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2004) The philosophy behind dugs in sport is complex as there are many different philosophies that people depart take. One reason is because of their desire to march on. The larn at all costs theory is rife throughout sport at all levels. The fact that drugs are used widely thr oughout sport is because of this theory. If a competitor thinks that he will be able to get the edge on any of his opponents he will take it. still the win at all cost attitudes towards sport is essential in athletes taking these performance-enhancing drugs. It was really rammed home what length professional athletes will go to become triple-crown and win.The win at all cost mentality was evident at the biggest stage of sport the Olympics. At the last Olympics there were 24 doping violations throughout the all of the games. This is double the amount found at the previously highest amount taken at the Olympics. (BBC website) It shows that competitors will do whatever it takes to win that gold medal. The philosophy for many people who decide to go ahead and take drugs is because they believe everyone else does. An interview with a professional weightlifter called Tammy Thompson. She showed the philosophy of since everyone else takes drugs then so should I. in the interview she t6al ks about the reason why she started to take performance enhancing drugs.Instead of training harder or going to better techniques, I figured they were taking drugs and I would too. Id catch up. (Todd, 1987) This shows one reason behind this competitor took these drugs and why many other do. The theory that when they lose it is because everyone else is taking drugs not because they cant make the form in there sport. The philosophy of doing what everyone else is doing is probably the primary(prenominal) reason for the competitors taking drugs. When you are watching certain sports you automatically believe that they are taking drugs to call down their performance. Sports like power lifting, or bodybuilding is rife in them and it is obvious that people would take the drugs to keep up with the other people in their sport if they want to be prospering.If we look at taking drugs in a philosophic viewpoint, we always come to the fact that does it really affect the somebodys success. Are these performance-enhancing drugs in reality the magic pill the media makes them out to be? (Simon 1984). They may improve the performance of the competitors taking them but they still consecrate to subscribe to the desire to be favored and train to make these drugs work. The drug will not suddenly make an average performer become world class. The somebody still needs to have that core skill and determination to train and win.We see the taking of these drugs as cheating. Gunther Luschen describes cheating as cheating in sport is the act through which the plain or latently agreed upon conditions for winning such a contest are changed in favour of one side. As a result, the principle of equality of recover beyond differences of skill and strategy is violated (1976). Throughout your early experience of sport as a child you are told of the philosophy that cheaters never win. But as a child growing up we see people cheating by taking these drugs every day and the children will see these and it will become even more than acceptable than it is at this moment in time. Children are seeing there favourite stars suspected of taking drugs such as Rio Ferdinand and they will start to believe that this is all that you can do to become successful in sport. This is just one case of high profile call being found or believed to be taking drugs while competing in sport.When you look on what the philosophy is behind the reason performers take drugs there is a wide selection. But one thing through all the theories that you may find for the use of performance enhancing drugs is that they are related to the person or persons winning. No matter what why they put there reason for taking these drugs it will always come back to the fact that they want to win and be successful.The coterminous factor that I will be looking at the affect of taking the drugs has on a persons psychology. There is psychological affects that come upon a person are different for each stage of use of p erformance enhancing drugs. Some affects of taking these drugs are to have changes in moods, become more confident in your self and you become more motivated and enthusiastic. These may seem like good affects but these come early in the usage of drugs. Eventually the person will come prone to mood swings they will create aggressive feeling, which grow into violence and hostile behaviour. (Corrigan 1996) we can see just from these affect the severity of taking these drugs. You think of the amount of people that are on these drugs and you can see the problem that arise with people taking performance enhancing drugs, these violent behaviour are also what led to such incidents as including reckless driving or crashing cars, assaults, marriage break-ups, domestic violence, child abuse, suicide and attempted murder or murder. (Schulte, Hail, Boyer, 1993)We can see the potential havoc that these drugs can cause to a person psychological health. When you look at the psychological effect tha t taking these drugs have upon the persons taking anabolic steroids one familiar factor continues to arise. This factor is that a person will develop mood disorders. Pope and Katz (1990) found that 22 per cent of bodybuilders and footballers were found to meet the American Psychiatric Associations criteria for a manic or depressive episode while on anabolic steroids, it was also discovered that once stop taking the drug there symptoms subsided.This shows how taking these steroids can affect a persons psychological well being. The drug affects people in a variety of ways, be it like above in their moods and make them come a bit more depressed. Where as in the other reports found that taking these anabolic steroids affect a person aggression we can see this in a study taken by Choi and Pope (1994) they took study of 24 anabolic steroid user and 14 non users. The findings were that while a person who was taking a drug cycle they were more likely to report verbal and physical fights wit h their spouse equationd with the non-user and people that were not currently on a drug cycle.We can see from these affects that a person has while he or she is on a drug cycle. This is a worrying thought as we have already seen the amount of drug user there is thought to be. Among the community of steroid users there is a term called roid rage, which described by Wright, Grogan and Hunter (2001) as an uncontrollable outbursts of aggression. In report taken by Beel (1994) people who are taking these drugs compare normally to the general public in education, income, height and alcohol consummation. Though are likely to report roid rage as a response to downcast amounts of provocation. This is a worrying finding if it does not take a lot to make a person go into an uncontrollable fit of rage. We see the stats of how many people can get hold of these drugs and how many people are currently using the drug. But you only realise the fact that it affects the people nearly them as well. If they take one of these roid rage it may be the people nearest to them they take it out on and in some cases that can be there wives or their children.Looking at the overall effect of drugs on the whole on the user psychological state of mind it is worrying thought that there are so many effects that can occur a person during cycles of drug use. These affects are not just affecting the person themselves but the people nearest to them they are also affected. We see all the problems that come with taking these drugs and yet they still take them knowing that they will affects them and this shows that they are willing to do whatever it takes to be successful in there goal. This links in with the philosophy of winning at all costs on previously in the paper.The next factor that I will be looking at is the sociology behind why people take these performance-enhancing drugs. A main factor in the use of these drugs is to enhance their body appearance. When giving reasons for using these p erformance-enhancing drugs improving body orbit was most frequently given answer amongst gym users. (Taylor and Black 1987) this answer shows that people are to this being socially acceptable and look the correct way to people. This stems from the public determine and the fibre models that are do of sports stars.Examples are rife in all deemries, are it here in Briton where a lot of our superstars are given the clean cut image and built up to a superstar status. You look at Dwain Chambers a major force in 100 meters sprinting who is portrayed to the public as the greatest thing since sliced bread. Chambers ultimately caught with taking banned substance THG while in his training camp in Germany. (Parry 2006) This has ruined his image of a role model. People looking up at chambers will think this must be acceptable and the only way to be successful. It upholds that image in society that to become as successful as him you will have to take performance-enhancing drugs.We see the a ffect that drugs have in sport through the number of people caught each year. But when you look and see that children are thinking of beginning to play sport and want to be successful you can see the problem. Linford Christie and Olympic medalist himself stated that athletics has become so corrupt with drugs that he would not want he children involved in it. (Savulescu, Foddy and Clayton 2004) when you see an Olympic champion saying such bad thing about a sport it helps you realize the severity of drug taking in sport. This affects him even though to the society who thinks it was best time of his life, but in reality he does not even want his children to experience this side of a professional sportsman society where drugs are common and not really thought about.When you look at society and who their role models are especially in England the people they look up to are the professional footballers. So the affect of any of these players taking drugs would affect the society as a whole and promote taking these performance-enhancing drugs. In survey conducted by Waddington, Malcolm, Roderick, et al (2004) of professional footballers in England, they found that there was at four premiership players using enhancing drugs. This has massive affect on society as if these people are thought to be gaining in success and in the money that they earn then it must have affect on society on how they react to this. Public see there top stars such as Gerrard, Rooney, or Henry taking drugs they will patently think that this is how they can immolate there fighter aircraftes. This shows how drugs in sport affect the society as a whole.The sociology side of drugs in sport is big in that it affects a lot of different society I not just one singular society. We look at athletes who get caught taking enhancing drugs and they are role models to all aspiring athletes or competitors and to no that they only achieved these heights through taking drugs only promotes the need for competito rs to take drugs. A big example is in America baseball where Mark McGwire stone-broke the record for most home run hits in baseball history for one season. Two weeks before McGwire broke this record he admitted to taking performance-enhancing drug but once he broke that record he was still treated like a hero and built up as a great of the game. But with this they also to a society of aspiring baseball players promoted taking this drug to become a player as good as McGwire was.The final aspect that you have to look at is what are the physiological affects when you are taking drugs. While a person is taking these performance-enhancing drugs there are physical affects that occur to the body. Strauss and Yesalis (1991) said that while a person is taking anabolic steroid that there is a growth in the size of a person while on these drugs.Though this is a plus of becoming bigger or being more successful at there sport there is also the downside of taking these drugs. Some of these probl ems are testicular atrophy, prostate enlargement, difficulty in urination secondary to changes in the prostate, (Daigle 1990) these are not shown to the buyer the problems that can occur from taking anabolic steroids, this is only one of many possible symptoms. When we look at all the different forms drugs caffeine also come up as a banned substance in terms off athletes. This drug has an affect on the muscles of the body and makes them go for longer it act upon the skeletal muscles. (Ganslen 1974)Drugs the different types of drugs which a person takes are vast they can range from drugs that are designed to crap muscle mass and make the performer bigger such as anabolic steroids, or drugs designed to make your red blood cell count become greater which are called EPO.EPO proper name Erythropoietin. EPO is a hormone produced by the kidneys that produces red blood cells within the body. By injecting themselves with extra EPO, athletes can not only improve oxygen absorption but also po tentially increase the metabolism and healing process of muscles. (Bennett, 2003) This drug is helpful with professional coach as it means that the person can train for longer. We can see simply from the two different drugs the radical changes that taking these performance-enhancing drugs can have on people.When you look at drugs in sport through each of these different aspects you can see a lot of how sever the problem is. Each aspect links in with each other to form different problems. Looking at the different whys that it harms a person it is not only a person body that it is affecting but also their mind. You also look at top professionals from all around the world they are role models to children from their countries who wish to be like them. So when they decide to take these drugs it is there body they are damaging but also the body of there fans who think that it is acceptable to take drugs if there heroes are doing so as well. It is the responsibilities to get a message out that drugs a re bad and should never be used in enhance a competitors performance because there decision affects many more people.

Qualitative research Essay Example for Free

Qualitative enquiry EssayAbstract This paper is the low gear of a series of three articles relating to a graphic symbol workplace conducted at Fair sphere of influence University to assess aspects of the rapid introduction of Information Technology at the origin. This article deals with the personality of the riddle faced by Fairfield University, the characteristics of the graphic symbol methodological analysis, and lays the foundation for the get hold ofion of this research technique for the current lease. The paper begins with an Introduction section to familiarize the reader with the cheek organization. The take aftering section on example Methodology explores the history, and round of the applications of the technique. The section ends with specific research protocols for police detectives. Introduction Fairfield University is a private liberal arts institution of about 3,000 full date undergraduate students and about 1,000 graduate school students. The undergr aduate students atomic number 18 distri excepted through the College of Arts and Sciences, the train of Business, and the School of Nursing. The graduate students are in the Graduate School of Education, the School of Business, and the School of Nursing.There are likewise part time students in the School of Continuing Education and the BEI School of Engineering. As with many other private institutions of higher education, Fairfield University faces many ch in bothenges. These challenges come from the declining population of college age students and the growing cost of running the institution. The literature pull up stakes realize the preceding statement (Crossland, 1980), however provide little comfort to the institution. One of the areas of greatest concern to college managers is the continuing cost of information technology.With the constant need to summation staff salaries, it is like salaries, inadvisable to reduce the outlay on information technology. Interviews that were conducted by this researcher with the deans and managers indicated that some of the peer institutions of Fairfield University are in fact doing as much if not more in this area. Hence any interruption in the effort to maintain technological currency would precede in a competitive disadvantage for the institution. Therein lies the administrative financial challenge.The expense on information technology must be maintained at a time of declining r unconstipatedues (Nicklin, 1992). The field of information technology at a university is rattling broad and could encompass many technologies hitherto not considered within its purview. so far, on that point has been a dreary and indeed accelerating pace of convergence of the technologies in telecommunications, library services, and video services. The current contract is concerned only with the aspects of information technology as it relates to academic cypher and forget focus on instructional and research computing.The goals of this study let in an examination of the (a) managerial and (b) economic aspects of the rapid acquisition of information technology. The objectives deriving from those goals are An assessment of the categories of computer use in higher education. An evaluation of the managerial issues of computing, including the centralization/decentralization of computing, client/server computing and the aspects of the Internet and the World abundant Web (WWW) Establish a basis for spirit the current and future economic aspects of information technology acquisition.The research questions arising from the above objectives were as attends Objective 1 above is turn to by the question What patterns of acquisition emerge from the current computing environment and the perceived needs for computing? Objective 2 is addressed by the question What characteristics of the categories of computing use contribute to the patterns of acquisition? The five categories organiseed by King and Kraemer (1985) and adapted for use by Levy (1988) in his study at the University of Arizona, are used in this study, to examine the computing use at Fairfield University.Objective 3 is addressed by the question What managerial issues arise from the rapid acquisition of information technology and how substantial chip in those technologies become to the organization? Objective 4 is addressed by the question How will the institution balance the need for technological changes with the need to continue the accomplishment of routine tasks?. Samuel Levy (1988) conducted a study of instructional and research computing at the University of Arizona. This study replicates and extends the Levy (1988) study, and was conducted at Fairfield University.The current study extends the Levy (1988) study in its examination of aspects of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and Client/Server computing. Levy (1988) complete the use of the graphic symbol study as appropriate for the research project, and this researcher a lso used the literature to confirm the use of issue methodology in the study at Fairfield University. The history and development of case methodology is reviewed, in support of the current case study at Fairfield University. There piddle been periods of intent use followed by periods of disuse of this technique, as documented by Hamel, Dufour, and Fortin (1993) as well as others.The relevance of that history to this study is important in that it establishes the cognise advantages and disadvantages of the methodology. The particular technique of a single-case study is reviewed, since that is the specific implementation of a case study at Fairfield University and was also used by Levy (1988). Case Study Methodology The history of case study research is marked by periods of intense use and periods of disuse. The earliest use of this form of research put up be traced to Europe, predominantly to France.The methodology in the United States was more or less closely associated with Th e University of Chicago Department of Sociology. From the early 1900s until 1935, The Chicago School was preeminent in the field and the source of a great deal of the literature. There was a wealth of material in Chicago, since it was a period of immigration to the United States and versatile aspects of immigration of different national groups to the city were studied and reported on (Hamel et al. , 1993). Issues of poverty, unemployment, and other conditions deriving from immigration were ideally suited to the case study methodology.Zonabend (1992) stated that case study is done by giving special attention to completeness in observation, reconstruction, and analysis of the cases under study. Case study is done in a path that incorporates the views of the actors in the case under study. The field of sociology is associated most strongly with case study research, and during the period bakshishing up to 1935, several(prenominal) problems were raised by researchers in other fields. This coincided with a movement within sociology, to hit it more scientific. This meant providing some quantitative measurements to the research foundation and analysis.Since The Chicago School was most identified with this methodology, thither were serious attacks on their primacy. This resulted in the denigration of case study as a methodology. In 1935, there was a public dispute between capital of South Carolina University professors, who were championing the scientific method, and The Chicago School and its supporters. The outcome was a victory for Columbia University and the consequent decline in the use of case study as a research methodology. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) was careful to reject the disapprovals of case study as poorly founded, made in the midst of methodological conflict.He asserted that the drawbacks of case study were not organism attacked, rather the immaturity of sociology as a discipline was being displayed. As the use of quantitative methods advanced, the decline of the case study hastened. However, in the 1960s, researchers were becoming concerned about the limitations of quantitative methods. Hence there was a renewed interest in case study. Strauss and Glaser (1967) developed the concept of grounded theory. This along with some well regarded studies accelerated the renewed use of the methodology.A frequent criticism of case study methodology is that its dependence on a single case renders it incapable of providing a generalizing conclusion. Yin (1993) presented Giddens view that considered case methodology microscopic because it lacked a qualified number of cases. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) and Yin (1984, 1989a, 1989b, 1993, 1994) forcefully argued that the relative size of the sample whether 2, 10, or cytosine cases are used, does not transform a multiple case into a macroscopic study. The goal of the study should establish the parameters, and then should be applied to all research.In this way, even a single case could be considered acceptable, provided it met the established objective. The literature provides some insight into the acceptance of an experimental proto character to perceive the uniqueness of the object of study. This ensures the transformation from the local to the global for explanation. Hamel (Hamel et al. , 1993) characterized such singularity as a concentration of the global in the local. Yin (1989a) stated that general applicability results from the site of methodological qualities of the case, and the rigor with which the case is constructed.He detailed the procedures that would satisfy the required methodological rigor. Case study can be seen to satisfy the three tenets of the qualitative method describing, understanding, and explaining. The literature contains numerous examples of applications of the case study methodology. The earliest and most natural examples are to be found in the fields of Law and Medicine, where cases even out up the large body of the student work. How ever, there are some areas that apply used case study techniques extensively, particularly in government and in evaluative situations.The government studies were carried out to determine whether particular programs were efficient or if the goals of a particular program were being met. The evaluative applications were carried out to assess the effectuality of educational initiatives. In both types of investigations, merely quantitative techniques tended to obscure some of the important information that the researchers needed to uncover. The body of literature in case study research is primitive and limited (Yin, 1994), in comparison to that of experimental or quasi-experimental research.The requirements and inflexibility of the latter forms of research make case studies the only viable resource in some instances. It is a fact that case studies do not need to have a minimum number of cases, or to randomly select cases. The researcher is called upon to work with the situation that pr esents itself in each case. Case studies can be single or multiple-case designs, where a multiple design must follow a replication rather than sampling logic. When no other cases are available for replication, the researcher is limited to single-case designs.Yin (1994) pointed out that generalization of results, from both single or multiple designs, is made to theory and not to populations. Multiple cases strengthen the results by replicating the pattern-matching, thus increasing confidence in the robustness of the theory. Applications of case study methodology have been carried out in High-Risk Youth Programs (Yin, 1993) by several researchers. The effects of community-based prevention programs have been widely investigated using case methodology.Where the high insecurity youth studies assumed a single case evaluation, these studies have typically used a collection of cases as a multiple-case study. This has been true in the various substance abuse prevention programs that are co mmunity-based (Holder, 1987 Sabol, 1990 Yin, 1993). Numerous such studies sponsored by the U. S. General Accounting Office are distributed in the literature between Evans (1976) and Gopelrud (1990). These studies have gone beyond the quantitative statistical results and explained the conditions through the perspective of the actors. Thus case study evaluations can cover both process and outcomes, because they can include both quantitative and qualitative information. There are several examples of the use of case methodology in the literature. Yin (1993) listed several examples along with the appropriate research design in each case. There were suggestions for a general approach to designing case studies, and also recommendations for exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive case studies. Each of those three approaches can be either single or multiple-case studies, where multiple-case studies are replicatory, not sampled cases.There were also specific examples in education, and mana gement information systems. Education has embraced the case method for instructional use. Some of the applications are reviewed in this paper. In exploratory case studies, fieldwork, and data collection may be undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses. This type of study has been considered as a prelude to some social research. However, the framework of the study must be created ahead of time. Pilot projects are very useful in determining the final protocols that will be used.Survey questions may be dropped or added based on the outcome of the pilot study. Selecting cases is a difficult process, but the literature provides guidance in this area (Yin, 1989a). mail (1995) recommended that the selection offers the opportunity to maximize what can be learned, knowing that time is limited. Hence the cases that are selected should be easy and willing subjects. A good instrumental case does not have to defend its typicality. Explanatory cases are suitable for doing causal studies. In very complex and multivariate cases, the analysis can make use of pattern-matching techniques.Yin and Moore (1988) conducted a study to examine the reason why some research findings get into applicative use. They used a funded research project as the unit of analysis, where the topic was constant but the project varied. The utilization outcomes were explained by three rival theories a knowledge-driven theory, a problem-solving theory, and a social-interaction theory. Knowledge-driven theory means that ideas and discoveries from basic research eventually become commercial products. Problem-solving theory follows the same path, but originates not with a researcher, but with an external source identifying a problem.The social-interaction theory claims that researchers and users belong to overlapping professional networks and are in frequent communication. Descriptive cases require that the police detective begin with a descriptive theory, or face the possibi lity that problems will occur during the project. Pyecha (1988) used this methodology to study special education, using a pattern-matching procedure. Several states were studied and the data about each states activities were compared to other, with idealized theoretic patterns. Thus what is implied in this type of study is the formation of hypotheses of cause-effect relationships.Hence the descriptive theory must cover the erudition and scope of the case under study. The selection of cases and the unit of analysis is developed in the same manner as the other types of case studies. Case studies have been increasingly used in education. While law and medical schools have been using the technique for an extended period, the technique is being applied in a variety of instructional situations. Schools of business have been most aggressive in the implementation of case based learning, or active learning (Boisjoly DeMichiell, 1994).Harvard University has been a attractor in this area, and cases developed by the faculty have been published for use by other institutions. The School of Business at Fairfield University has revised the curriculum so that in place of the individual longitudinal courses in the areas of Management, Marketing, Operations, Finance, and Information Systems, students take one course. That course is designed around cases that encompass those disciplines, but are presented in an integrated manner. The students are therefore made aware of the interrelatedness of the various disciplines and begin to think in terms of wider problems and solutions.Later courses add the international property to the overall picture. Case studies have been used to develop critical cerebration (Alvarez, et al. , 1990). There are also interactive language courses (Carney, 1995), courses designed to broaden the students horizons (Brearley, 1990), and even for technical courses (Greenwald, 1991), and philosophical ones (Garvin, 1991). This investigation is a case stud y of the aspects of Information Technology that are related to client/server computing, the Internet, and the World Wide Web, at Fairfield University.Thus this paper examines issues that will expand the readers knowledge of case study methodology as it relates to the design and execution of such a study. Yin (1994) recommended the use of case-study protocol as part of a carefully designed research project that would include the quest sections Overview of the project (project objectives and case study issues) Field procedures (credentials and access to sites) Questions (specific questions that the researcher must keep in mind during data collection) Guide for the report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p.64)The quintessential characteristic of case studies is that they strive towards a holistic understanding of cultural systems of action (Feagin, Orum, Sjoberg, 1990). Cultural systems of action refer to sets of interrelated activities engaged in by the actors in a s ocial situation. The case studies must constantly have boundaries (Stake, 1995). Case study research is not sampling research, which is a fact asserted by all the major researchers in the field, including Yin, Stake, Feagin and others. However, selecting cases must be done so as to maximize what can be learned, in the period of time available for the study.The unit of analysis is a critical mover in the case study. It is typically a system of action rather than an individual or group of individuals. Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined. Case studies are multi-perspectival analyses. This means that the researcher considers not just the vowelise and perspective of the actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them. This one aspect is a salient point in the characteristic that case studies possess. They flip over a voice to the powerless and voiceless.When sociological studies present many studies of the homeless and powerless, they do so from the viewpoint of the elite (Feagin, Orum, Sjoberg, 1991). Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. Snow and Anderson (cited in Feagin, Orum, Sjoberg, 1991) asserted that triangulation can occur with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies. Stake (1995) stated that the protocols that are used to ensure accuracy and selection explanations are called triangulation. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to confirm the validity of the processes.In case studies, this could be done by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 1984). The problem in case studies is to establish meaning rather than location. Designing Case Studies Yin (1994) identified five components of research design that are important for case studies A studys questions Its propositions, if any Its unit(s) of analysis The logic linking the data to the propositions The criteria for transl ation the findings (Yin, 1994, p. 20). The studys questions are most likely to be how and why questions, and their definition is the first task of the researcher.The studys propositions sometimes win from the how and why questions, and are helpful in focusing the studys goals. Not all studies need to have propositions. An exploratory study, rather than having propositions, would have a stated mapping or criteria on which the success will be judged. The unit of analysis defines what the case is. This could be groups, organizations or countries, but it is the primary unit of analysis. Linking the data to propositions and the criteria for interpreting the findings are the least developed aspects in case studies (Yin, 1994).Campbell (1975) described pattern-matching as a useful technique for linking data to the propositions. Campbell (1975) asserted that pattern-matching is a situation where several pieces of information from the same case may be related to some theoretical propositio n. His study showed, through pattern-matching, that the observed drop in the level of merchandise fatalities in Connecticut was not related to the lowering of the speed limit. His study also illustrated some of the difficulties in establishing the criteria for interpreting the findings.Construct validity is especially moot in case study research. It has been a source of criticism because of potential investigator subjectivity. Yin (1994) pro represent three remedies to counteract this using multiple sources of assure, establishing a chain of manifest, and having a draft case study report reviewed by key informants. Internal validity is a concern only in causal (explanatory) cases. This is usually a problem of inferences in case studies, and can be dealt with using pattern-matching, which has been described above.External validity deals with knowing whether the results are generalizable beyond the immediate case. Some of the criticism against case studies in this area relate to s ingle-case studies. However, that criticism is directed at the statistical and not the analytical generalization that is the basis of case studies. Reliability is achieved in many ways in a case study. One of the most important methods is the development of the case study protocol. Case studies can be either single or multiple-case designs. Single cases are used to confirm or challenge a theory, or to represent a unique or utmost(prenominal) case (Yin, 1994).Single-case studies are also ideal for revelatory cases where an observer may have access to a phenomenon that was previously inaccessible. Single-case designs require careful investigation to repeal misrepresentation and to maximize the investigators access to the evidence. These studies can be holistic or embedded, the latter occurring when the same case study pick ups more than one unit of analysis. Multiple-case studies follow a replication logic. This is not to be confused with sampling logic where a selection is made ou t of a population, for inclusion in the study.This type of sample selection is improper in a case study. Each individual case study consists of a whole study, in which facts are self-collected from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts. Yin (1994) asserted that a case study investigator must be able to operate as a fourth-year investigator during the course of data collection. There should be a period of training which begins with the examination of the definition of the problem and the development of the case study design. If there is only a single investigator, this might not be necessary.The training would cover aspects that the investigator needs to know, such as the reason for the study, the type of evidence being sought, and what variations might be expected. This could take the form of discussion rather than formal lectures. A case study protocol contains more than the survey instrument, it should also contain procedures and general rules that should be follo wed in using the instrument. It is to be created prior to the data collection phase. It is essential in a multiple-case study, and desirable in a single-case study.Yin (1994) presented the protocol as a major component in asserting the dependability of the case study research. A typical protocol should have the following sections An overview of the case study project (objectives, issues, topics being investigated) Field procedures (credentials and access to sites, sources of information) Case study questions (specific questions that the investigator must keep in mind during data collection) A describe for case study report (outline, format for the narrative) (Yin, 1994, p. 64). The overview should communicate to the reader the general topic of inquiry and the purpose of the case study.The field procedures mostly involve data collection issues and must be properly designed. The investigator does not control the data collection environment (Yin, 1994) as in other research strategies hence the procedures become all the more important. During interviews, which by nature are open ended, the subjects schedule must dictate the activity (Stake, 1995). Gaining access to the subject organization, having sufficient resources while in the field, clearly scheduling data collection activities, and providing for unanticipated events, must all be planned for.Case study questions are posed to the investigator, and must serve to remind that person of the data to be collected and its possible sources. The guide for the case study report is often neglected, but case studies do not have the uniform outline, as do other research reports. It is essential to plan this report as the case develops, to subdue problems at the end. Stake (1995), and Yin (1994) identified at least six sources of evidence in case studies. The following is not an ordered list, but reflects the research of both Yin (1994) and Stake (1995)Documents Archival records Interviews Direct observation Participant- observation Physical artifacts Documents could be letters, memoranda, agendas, administrative documents, newspaper articles, or any document that is germane to the investigation. In the interest of triangulation of evidence, the documents serve to incarnate the evidence from other sources. Documents are also useful for making inferences about events. Documents can lead to false leads, in the hands of inexperienced researchers, which has been a criticism of case study research.Documents are communications between parties in the study, the researcher being a vicarious observer keeping this in mind will help the investigator avoid being misled by such documents. Archival documents can be service records, organizational records, lists of names, survey data, and other such records. The investigator has to be careful in evaluating the accuracy of the records before using them. Even if the records are quantitative, they might still not be accurate. Interviews are one of the most important sources of case study information.There are several forms of interviews that are possible Open-ended, Focused, and Structured or survey. In an open-ended interview, key respondents are asked to stimulant about certain events. They may propose solutions or provide insight into events. They may also corroborate evidence obtained from other sources. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant, and seek the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity. The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set questions.This technique is often used to confirm data collected from some other source. The structured interview is similar to a survey, and is used to gather data in cases such as neighborhood studies. The questions are detailed and developed in advance, much as they are in a survey. Direct observation occurs when a field visit is conducted during the case study. It could be as simple as casual data collection activities, or formal protocols to measure and record behaviors. This technique is useful for providing additional information about the topic being studied.The reliability is enhanced when more than one observer is involved in the task. Glesne and Peshkin (1992) recommended that researchers should be as unobtrusive as the wallpaper. Participant-observation makes the researcher into an active participant in the events being studied. This often occurs in studies of neighborhoods or groups. The technique provides some unusual opportunities for collecting data, but could face some major problems as well. The researcher could well interchange the course of events as part of the group, which may not be helpful to the study.Physical artifacts can be tools, instruments, or some other physical evidence that may be collected during the study as part of a field visit. The perspective of the researcher can be broadened as a result of the discovery. It i s important to keep in mind that not all sources are relevant for all case studies (Yin, 1994). The investigator should be capable of dealing with all of them, should it be necessary, but each case will present different opportunities for data collection. There are some conditions that arise when a case researcher must start data collection before the study questions have been defined and finalized (Yin, 1994).This is likely to be successful only with an experienced investigator. Another important point to review is the benefit of using rival hypotheses and theories as a means of adding quality control to the case study. This improves the perception of the fairness and serious thinking of the researcher. Analyzing Case Study Evidence This aspect of the case study methodology is the least developed and hence the most difficult. As a result, some researchers have suggested that if the study were made conducive to statistical analysis, the process would be easier and more acceptable.Th is quantitative approach would be appealing to some of the critics of the case study methodology. However not all case studies lend themselves to this type of analysis. Miles and Huberman (1984) suggested analytic techniques such as rearranging the arrays, placing the evidence in a matrix of categories, creating flowcharts or data displays, tabulating the absolute frequency of different events, using means, variances and cross tabulations to examine the relationships between variables, and other such techniques to facilitate analysis. There must first be an analytic strategy, that will lead to conclusions.Yin (1994) presented two strategies for general use One is to rely on theoretical propositions of the study, and then to analyze the evidence based on those propositions. The other technique is to develop a case description, which would be a framework for organizing the case study. Lynd conducted a widely cited Middletown study in 1929, and used a formal chapter construct to guide the development of the analysis. In other situations, the original objective of the case study may help to identify some causal links that could be analyzed. Pattern-matching is another major mode of analysis.This type of logic compares an empirical pattern with a predicted one. Internal validity is enhanced when the patterns coincide. If the case study is an explanatory one, the patterns may be related to the dependent or independent variables. If it is a descriptive study, the predicted pattern must be defined prior to data collection. Yin (1994) recommended using rival explanations as pattern-matching when there are independent variables involved. This requires the development of rival theoretical propositions, but the overall concern remains the degree to which a pattern matches the predicted one.Yin (1994) encouraged researchers to make every effort to produce an analysis of the highest quality. In order to accomplish this, he presented four principles that should attract the researchers attention Show that the analysis relied on all the relevant evidence Include all major rival interpretations in the analysis Address the most significant aspect of the case study single-valued function the researchers prior, expert knowledge to further the analysis Stake (1995) recommended categorical aggregation as another means of analysis and also suggested developing protocols for this phase of the case study to enhance the quality of the research.He also presented ideas on pattern-matching along the lines that Yin (1994) presented. Runkel (1990) used aggregated measures to obtain relative frequencies in a multiple-case study. Stake (1995) kick upstairs coding the data and identifying the issues more clearly at the analysis stage. Eisner and Peshkin (1990) placed a high priority on direct interpretation of events, and lower on interpretation of measurement data, which is another viable alternative to be considered.

Social Inequalities Affect Health Health And Social Care Essay

Social Inequalities Affect health Health And Social C ar EssaySocial inequalities in wellness have been widely accepted and put down (Fox, 1989 Davey-Smith et al., 1990 Macintyre, 1997 Marmot et al., 1997), and have been particularly apparent in The Black Report (Townsend and Davidson, 1982) which has revealed wide disparities ( health gap) surrounded by passel at opposite ends of the br some otherly strata, that are widely change magnitude in the UK (Marmot and McDowell, 1986 Macintyre, 1997) and the US (Papas et al, 1993).A burgeoning volume of research identifies amicable factors at the root of much of these health inequalities, for instance, researchers have found health to be socially patterned (gradient effect), where individuals at high ends of the social class love better health and live longer, than their counterparts (Acheson 1998 Adler et al., 1998) and this has been consistent, even when controlling for other factors (Lantz et al., 1998).Thus, if one moves up the social strata, the better ones health (Kitagawa Hauser, 1973).Social economic status (SES) has been use to assess ones social position as a reliable method, and many types of approaches have been used to assess SES, including occupation, household in postdate or level of achieved education (Mackenbach and Kunst, 1997). Research has found that Individuals with a low SES have a lower mortality direct (Benzeval, 1995) and experience greater disability and ill health (Dalstra et al., 2005 Huisman et al., 2005 Marmot, Bosma, Hemingway, Brunner, Stansfeld, 1997 Marmot, Rose, Shipley, Hamilton, 1978).Deprived individuals may also have a greater propensity to develop diabetes, develop pukecer, cardiovascular disease, asthma, morbific diseases and all causes of mortality and even die, as a result of homicide (Adler and Ostrove, 1999 Ecob Smith, 1999 Schalick, Hadden, Pamuk, Navarro, Pappas, 2000 Sterling, Rosenbaum, Weinkam, 1993). Thus, ill-health dope therefore restrict prospect s of economic attainment (Adler et al, 1994 Marmot et al, 1997).One reason for this could be that mess have to put up with wretcheder living conditions, which could result in them being exposed to hazardous and un levelheaded environments i.e. pollution, noise, toxic waste, crowding, ambient noise and poor admit quality, which are linked with poor health and disease (Evans and Kantrovitz, 2002).Whilst individuals of a high (SES) have a reduced chance of exposure to negative life events (Mcleod and Kessler, 1990) hence, change magnitude their vulnerability of suffering chronic or acute illness (Cohen and Williamson, 1991).It is also been found that Children of less affluent families are less in all probability to succeed at school (Essen and Wedge, 1982), to be employed in to a greater extent disadvantaged parts, and go through un trade much earlier in their lives (Ashton et al1987). This can lead smoking, drinking, depression, anxiety, and poor health behaviours (Wilson and Walker, 1993)One other interpretation for this inequality is that deprived individuals display more risk taking behaviours, such as bad diet, smoking and being physically inactive. However, this view is not always supported, and researchers have found little or no relationship (OMalley et al., 1993 Donato et al., 1994).A growing dust of research has also adjudge the relationship between income inequality on individual health (Kawachi, 2002 Wilkinson, 1996), for example, low income has been correspond to show a risk factor for disease and ill-health (Syme, 1998), and according to the congress income hypothesis, people from a low SES are more given to experience poor health if they feel disadvantaged than others (Marmot et al., 1991 Wilkinson, 1997). They are also more likely to experience depression and stress (Cohen et al., 1997) and this may subsequently hinder or weaken ones power to assess local health-related resources (Deaton, 2003).Theseconsequences of income inequality can affect individuals significantly, resulting in frustration, stress and disruption, which can subsequently increase the rates of crime, violence and homicide (Wilkinson, 1996). Education also influences health through its relation with higher income (Chevalier et al, 2005) and better living environment, as those with a higher educational attainment are less likely to be unemployed, and more likely to have careers with higher earnings (Ross Wu, 1995).Furthermore, individuals with higher levels of educational attainment have shown to having certain psychological mechanisms, such as social support, economic resources and a strong sense of personal control, which are associated with a higher mortality rate and higher health status. (Kunst Mackenbach, 1994 Elo Preston, 1996).Parents educational attainment is also significant, as this can directly advert the Childs future health via primary socializing for example, Blackburn et al (2003) have found that higher levels of maternal e ducation are associated with lower levels of household smoking, and hence, lower levels of tobacco exposure to children.An individuals health outcome can also be affected by the type of occupation, for example, The Black Report (Townsend and Davison, 1982) discovered that unskilled manual workers (social class V) regularly suffered from poorer health than those classified as professionals (Social class I). The Whitehall studies were particularly important in highlighting this association, researchers looked at British civil servants, and discovered higher mortality rates were found to be correlated with lower hierarchal rank (Marmot, 2004), and this social gradient was further refined and supported by Siegrist Marmot (2006).In addition, a strong inverse association was found, between the grade of employment and absenteeism as a result of health status (Stansfield et al, 1995).The type and quality of the job the individual has can also have a fundamental difference to their health, i.e. through occupational hazards and unsafe and physically demanding work environments (Lucas, 1974). It can also impact ones health indirectly through income security, or psychological or social mechanisms. Furthermore, Lower employment grades have showed almost three times greater occurrences of coronary heart disease (CHD) and lung cancer than those individuals in the highest employment grades (Marmot, 1986). Thus, one may conclude that the association between grade and type of work is apparent, and the environment of individuals in lower classs may not always be conducive to good health.An increasing amount of research asserts that health outcomes and health-related behaviour are directly linked with area of residence (Collins, Margo, 2000 Cubbin, Hadden, Winkleby, 2001 Guest, Almgren, Hussey, 1998 Jones and Moon, 1993 MacIntyre, MacIver Sooman, 1993 Pickett and Pearl, 2001 Ren, Amick, Williams, 1999 Shaw et al, 1999).People living in disadvantaged areas usually experienc e poorer health (Townsend et al., 1988) and increasingly show higher levels of morbidity and mortality than individuals living in more prosperous areas (Achenson, 1998 Mackenbach, Kunst, Cavelaars, Groenhof, Geurts, 1997 Marmot and McDowell, 1986 Townsend, Whitehead, Davidson, 1992).An example of this was seen in the mortality rates ,in different Scottish postal code areas, which revealed a constant gradient of increased mortality from the most affluent, to the most disadvantaged areas, based on social class, male unemployment, household overcrowding and access to car (Carstairs and Morris, 1991).The Health Divide (Whitehead,1988), revealed further discrepancies, where a North South health divide in the UK was found, and a higher prevalence of ill health become apparent in the industrialised North (Sidell, 2003). Further health inequalities existing, as a result of area of residence, was seen in Mexico, where a nine year difference in life expectancy was reported between people li ving in a poor county, and those in a relatively well-off county (Evans et al., 2001).Implications of living in a less affluent area can also impact the mortality risk for those individuals, of even a higher SES (Yen and Kapplan, 1999a). However, those who perceive themselves to live in deprived neighbourhoods are inclined to have more negative health signs i.e. high body mass index. A lower effective efficacy has also been reported amongst low income residents, whereby individuals perceive less cohesion and social control this may impact the individual mentally i.e. depression (Cohen et al, 2003 Schafer-McDaniel, 2009) and even prohibit physical activity.Another barrier to health and its resultant inequalities is ethnicity/race. Ethnic minority groups have an increased rate of health inequalities, which have social consequences, (higher rates of coronary heart disease and diabetes), for example, research by Keppel, Pearcy and Wagener (2002) showed African-Americans in the United St ates experienced greater levels of illness (breast/lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and infant mortality rates) than other racial/ethnic minority groups.Morbidity rates have also been found to be higher for Bangladeshi and Pakistani minority groups, although findings did not generalise to Indian adults, who were found to have a similar health status to white adults (Cooper, 2002).These ethnic disparities have also been seen in the US where blacks seem to have worse health outcomes than whites, for instance, black women were more likely to have a child with a lower birth burden than their white counterparts (David and Collins, 1997).Despite these risk factors, discrimination and prejudice faced by ethnic minority groups further increases their chances of illness and finish (Williams and Jackson, 2005). For instance, Smaje (1995) and Modood et al., (1997) found that black people in ethnic minority groups suffered greater material disadvantage as a result of discrimination. Less affluent individuals can also be prone to develop mental health problems, as a result of their status. Many studies have looked at the effect of SES, and deprivationin relation to mental health (Thornicroft, 1991 Jarman et al, 1992 Harrison et al, 1995). Evidence has shown the incidence of mental illness, is more pronounced in the lower socio-economic groups, for example, it was found that working class women were more likely to suffer from mental health problems i.e. bipolar disorder than middle-class women (Brown and Harris, 1978) A positive association between deprivation, low SES and schizophrenia was further emphasised in Rogers (1991) who reported low SES women were more likely to develop neurotic diagnoses, and those who suffered from poverty, were more likely to have an increased risk to develop bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, phobias, depression and suffer from drug related problems (Bruce, 1991).Reasons for these social inequalities existing are multifaceted, and a matter for continuing debate, however, The Black Report (Townsend and Davidson, 1982) outlined four explanations, the first being Artefact, This points out that inequalities in health are demonstrated using different measuring systems to assess social class, and so, associations are resulting from artefacts (Davey Smith et al, 1991). However, this account has been largely dismissed as evidence has visibly shown a health disparity across occupational groups. Furthermore, these inequalities have been verified using different forms of measurement to assess social class i.e. educational attainment and occupation. Thus, this explanation does not present a superior argument to the complexities of health inequalities in society, and so cannot be sustained.An alternative method of explaining social inequalities comes from social picking this suggests healthy individuals move up (social mobilisation) the hierarchy, whilst individuals with poor health escalate downwards-which could be due unemploy ment, demotion, or disability (Moore and Porter, 1998).However, there is little evidence supports the view of social selection in relation to health inequalities (Whitehead, 1988) for example, Illness does affect social mobility however, the size of the effect is very little to actually account for overall health differences (Wilkinson, 1997).The ethnical behavioural explanation stipulates that health inequalities occur as a result of individual preferences and lifestyles, comprising of drinking, smoking, diet and exercise (Blaxter, 1990) and heathen factors. These health behaviors have been linked to death (i.e. lung cancer, coronary heart disease), and a social gradient has been found (Wardle and Griffith, 2001).Whilst there is a causal effect for mortality and morbidity, with health behaviours (i.e. smoking, diet), this explanation does not correspond of a complete explanation of inequalities, for instance, controlling for the risk factors of smoking, cholesterol and blood pres sure (Whitehall studies) did not explain the increase in CHD mortality amongst administrative and other grades, Nevertheless they did account for about 25% of the disparity (Rose Marmot, 1981). This explanation can further be criticised as it tends to classify health behaviours as being alike with cultural influences, and fails to acknowledge other variables, it also associates ethnic groups with a pattern of behaviour which may not necessarily signify wide-spread health patterns in cultural groups.Another approach to explain inequalities in health is the materialistic/structural, whichhas been supported by many researchers (Acheson, 1998 Gordon, Shaw, Dorling Davey Smith 1999 Townsend, Davidson, Whitehead, 1992). This approach states that inequalities are a result of unsymmetrical access to material and physical resources (Raphael, 2006). These include housing, working conditions, quality of available food, among others. Thus, research has consistently shown that social health inequalities exist and need to be dealt with. Health psychologists have played an important part in exposing the individual determinants of health related experiences and behaviour. In particular, highlighting the plight of these psychological and social factors. Therefore, acknowledging these health determinants can be significant in potentially reducing or even diminishing these health disparities, as awareness and research are significant to exoteric health intervention.The benefits of such research are also advantageous, as it highlights that an individual is not alone responsible for their own health, but a number of factors come in to play. Moreover, future research can thus investigate these social determinants, in particular, distinguishing between factors that affect health and those that form health inequalities. For instance, education as a social factor impinges on health but it is the lack of access to it and associated illiteracy that lead to inequalities.